THE 


NEW  AMERICAN  GARDENER; 

CONTAIKINO 

Practical  Ulrcctlons 


ON  THE  CULTURE  OP 

FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES; 


INCLUDING 


r.ANDSCAPE  AND  ORNAMENTAL  GARDENING  GRAPE-VINES 
SILK,  STRAWBERRIES,  &c.  &c. 


BY  THOMAS  G.  FESSENDEIV, 

EDI10B  OF  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  FARMER. 


Goo  Almighty  first  planted  a Garden  i and  indeed  it  is  the  purest  of  human 
pleasures ; it  is  the  greatest  refreshment  to  the  Bpirits  of  man  ; without  which 
buildings  and  palaces  are  but  gross  handy-works Bacon’s  Essays. 


Sebentj)  ISliftton. 


BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED  BY  RUSSELL,  ODIORNE  & CO. 

AND 

CARTER,  HENDEE  & CO. 

Cincinnati: 

H.  L.  & H.  S.  BARNUM. 

Sold  also  by  G.  C.  Barrett,  50^  North  Market  Street,  Boston;  G. 
Thorburn  & Sons,  67  Liberty  Street,  New  York ; E.  C.  Meilke, 

181  Market  Street,  Philadelphia;  S.  C.  Parkhurst, 

23  Lower  Market  Street,  Cincinnati; 
and  the  gt^nei  Jly. 


1833. 


DISTRICT  OP  MASSACHUSETTS,  to  wilt 

District  Clerk*s  Office. 

Be  IT  RSMCMBEREo,  That  OR  the  eighteenth  day  of  July,  A.  D.  18S8,  in  the  fifty 
third  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America,  J.  B.  Russell,  of  the 
jaid  district,  has  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a book,  the  right  whereof  he 
claims  as  proprietor,  in  the  words  following,  to  wit : 

“ 1’he  New  American  Gardener ; containing  practical  Directions  on  the  Culture  of 
^^ritiis  and  Vegetables  ; including  Landscape  and  Ornamental  Gardening,  Grape- 
iiies,  Silk,  Strawberries,  &,c.  &c.  By  Thomas  G.  Fessenden,  Editor  of  the  New 
•>iglaiid  Farmer. 

“ God  Almighty  first  planted  a Garden ; and  indeed  it  is  the  purest  of  human 
pleasures : it  is  the  greatest  refreshment  to  the  spirits  of  man  ; without  which 
Luildings  and  palaces  are  but  gross  handy-works. — Bacon’s  Essays.” 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitled,  “ An  Act 
for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books 
the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned 
%nd  also  to  an  act,  entitled,  “ An  Act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled.  An  Act 
for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books, 
te  the  authors  and  propricters  of  such,  copies  during  the  times  therein  mentioned ; 
uid  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and  etching 
kiatorical  and  other  prints.” 


JNO.  W.  DAVIS, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  MassachuaeiU 


o6  h C>  vAJ 


TO  THE 


tO 


HON.  JOHN  LOWELL,  LL.  D. 

PRKSIDENT  OF  THE  MASSACHUSETTS  SOCIETY  FOR  THJE 
PROMOTION  OF  AGRICULTURE,  &c. 


Sir, 

The  compiler  of  the  New  American  Garde^^er 
is  happy  to  inscribe  it  to  a gentleman,  whose  enlight- 
ened zeal,  and  disinterested  efforts  to  promote  the  ait 
to  which  it  is  devoted,  have  rendered  such  dedication 
so  very  appropriate.  Please  to  accept  of  it,  not  only 
as  a grateful  acknowledgment  of  favours  received,  but 
a slight,  though  sincere,  indication  of  the  writer’s  high 
opinion  of  the  value  of  your  indefatigable  exertions  to 
encourage  and  enlighten  the  pursuits  of  the  Husband- 
man and  the  Horticulturist ; vocations,  which,  as  they 
are  first  in  the  order  of  civilization,  should,  in  every 
civilized  country,  be  considered  as  of  the  first  im- 
portance to  the  best  interests  of  its  inhabitants. 

With  the  highest  esteem, 
your  much  obliged, 

and  most  obedient  servant. 


THOMAS  G,  FESSENDEN. 


With  regard  to  the  following  pages,  the  Compiler  oegt 
leave  to  observe,  that  utility  has  been  his  sole  object.  He 
has  no  pride  of  authorship  to  sustain,  nor  new  theories  to 
establish.  The  work  is  nothing  more  than  a humble  at- 
tempt to  render  some  service  to  cultivators,  by  collecting 
and  condensing,  from  various  sources,  such  directions, 
notices,  and  observations,  relating  as  well  to  field  as  to 
garden  culture,  as  seemed  of  most  importance  in  prac- 
tice. 

We  would  here  express  our  gratitude  to  gentlemen  who 
have  favoured  us  with  articles  for  this  work,  w^hich  must 
not  only  greatly  enhance  its  value,  but,  it  is  hoped,  \\dll 
atone,  in  some  measure,  for  the  faults  and  imperfections  of 
those  parts,  for  which  the  Compiler  alone  is  responsible. 
The  papers  to  which  we  allude  have  the  following  heads 
or  titles,  viz.  “Flowers,  Ornamental,”  109;  “Fruits,” 
128;  “Landscapes  and  Picturesque  Gardens,”  184 ; 
“Silk,”  268;  “Strawberry,”  285;  and  “Vine,”  294. 
The  two  last  mentioned  articles  were  from  the  pen  of  the 
same  gentleman  ; and  that  on  the  Vine,  having  been  origin- 
ally published  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository y 
has  been  republished  and  recommended  in  other  scientific 
journals,  as  forming  a complete  manual  for  the  culture  of 
the  grape. 


V 


NEW  AMERICAN  GARDENER 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  importance  and  utility  of  Horticulture,  or  the 
Art  of  cultivating  those  products  of  the  soil  which  are  used 
in  domestic  economy,  require  no  elaborate  exposition.  The 
greatest  blessings  which  a kind  Providence  can  bestow  or: 
man,  in  his  sublunary  state  of  existence,  are,  health  of  body 
and  peace  of  mind  ; and  the  pursuits  of  gardening  eminent- 
ly conduce  to  these.  Gardening  was  the  primitive  employ- 
ment of  the  first  man;  and  the  first  of  men^  among  his 
descendants,  have  ever  been  attached  to  that  occupation. 
Indeed,  we  can  hardly  form  an  idea  of  human  felicity,  in 
which  a garden  is  not  one  of  its  most  prominent  character- 
istics. 

Gardening  is  not  only  an  innocent  and  healthy,  but  a 
profitable  occupation.  It  is  not  alone  by  the  money  which 
is  made^  but  also  by  the  money  which  is  saved^  that  the 
profits  of  a pursuit  should  be  estimated.  Where  a good 
garden  constitutes  part  of  a rural  establishment,  and  the 
culinary  uses  of  its  productions  are  well  understood,  the 
field  or  the  market  furnishes  a proportion  ably  small  part  of 
the  provisions  necessary  for  family  consumption.  I con- 
sider,” said  Dr.  Deane,  the  kitchen  garden  of  very  con- 
siderable importance,  as  pot-herbs,  salads,  and  roots  of 
various  kinds,  are  useful  in  house-keeping.  Having  a 
plenty  of  them  at  hand,  a family  will  not  be  so  likely  to 
run  into  the  error,  which  is  too  common  in  this  country, 
of  eating  flesh  in  too  great  a proportion  for  health.  Farm- 
ers. as  well  as  others,  should  have  kitchen  gardens ; and 
they  need  not  grudge  the  labour  of  tending  them,  which 
may  be  done  at  odd  intervals  of  time,  which  would  other- 
wise chance  to  be  consumed  in  needless  loitering.” 

Cowley  says  of  gardening,  “ It  is  one  of  the  best-natured 
delights  of  all  others,  for  a man  to  look  about  him,  and  see 
nothing  but  the  effects  and  imnrovements  of  his  own  art 
1 * 


6 


INTRODUCTION. 


and  diligence ; to  be  always  gathering  some  fruits  of  it, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  behold  others  ripening,  and  others 
budding ; to  see  his  soil  covered  with  the  beauteous  crea- 
tures of  his  own  industry ; and  to  see,  like  God,  that  all 
his  works  are  good.” 

We  shall  here  state,  concisely,  some  of  the  principal  pre- 
requisites for  successful  horticulture,  directing  our  observa- 
tions, chiefly,  to  what  relates  to  the  kitchen  garden.  Gar- 
dens are  usually  classed  under  the  following  heads : — the 
kitchen  garden  ; the  fruit  garden  ; and  the  flower  garden. 
The  flower  garden,  being  designed  principally  for  ornament, 
should  be  placed  in  the  most  conspicuous  part,  that  is,  in 
front,  or  next  to  the  back  part  of  the  house  ; the  kitchen 
garden  and  fruit  garden  may  follow  in  succession.  With 
respect  to  the  natural  situation  of  a garden,  Nicol  and  For- 
tjyth  agree  in  preferring  a gentle  declivity  towards  the  south, 
a little  inclining  to  the  east,  to  receive  the  benefit  of  the 
morning  sun.  ‘‘A  kitchen  garden,”  observed  Dr.  Deane, 

should  not  be  situated  at  any  great  distance  from  the 
house,  lest,  being  too  much  out  of  sight,  it  should  be  out  of 
mind,  and  the  necessary  culture  of  it  too  much  neglected.” 
It  should  be  placed  adjoining  to  a stable,  whence  the  dung 
may  be  easily  conveyed  into  the  enclosure.  It  should  be 
sheltered,  as  much  as  can  be,  from  the  north  and  east,  to 
prevent  the  blighting  winds  from  affecting  the  trees.  The 
best  soil  for  a garden  is  a sandy  loam,  two  or  three  feet 
deep,  according  to  Forsyth ; but  if  deeper,  the  better.  The 
earth  should  not  be  of  a binding  nature  in  summer,  nor  re- 
tentive of  rain  in  winter,  but  of  such  a texture  that  it  can 
be  worked  at  any  season,  when  not  frozen,  without  diffi- 
culty.” 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  that  ‘‘  a garden  should  have  a close 
fence,  that  the  winds  may  not  drive  seeds  of  weeds  into  it. 
The  fence  should  be  at  least  seven  feet  high,  and  picketed 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  thieves.  The  height  and  close- 
ness of  the  fence  will  increase  the  vegetation  by  increasing 
the  warmth  of  the  air  in  the  garden,  excepting,  perhaps,  the 
parts  which  are  shaded  by  the  fences.  The  rage  of  high 
winds  will  be  so  opposed  as  to  prevent  the  tearing  and 
distorting  of  tender  plants,  and  fowls  may  be  more  easily 
kept  out.”  Loudon  remarks,  that  the  height  of  walls  for 
training  fruit  trees,  generally  approved,  is  from  ten  to 
twelve  feet } but  it  is  more  commonly  determined  by  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


size  and  form  of  the  garden,  and  the  inclination  of  its  sur- 
face.” “ Many  low  walls,  or  stout  ranges  of  paling,”  Aber- 
crombie observes,  ‘‘  will  produce  a greater  total  effect,  in 
accelerating  fruit,  than  the  same  expenditure  in  high  walls.” 
“ Fruit  walls,  five  or  six  feet  high,”  Hitt  remarks,  will 
do  very  well  for  peaches,  cherries,  vines,  and  figs  ; but  he 
would  not  advise  the  planting  of  apricots,  plums,  or  pears, 
on  such  walls,  they  requiring  more  room,  and  to  stand 
longer  before  they  bear.  Garden  walls  have  been  coloured 
white  or  black,  and  the  latter  colour  is  justly  preferred  as 
absorbing  and  refracting  more  heat  than  any  other,  and 
thereby  accelerating  the  maturity,  and  improving  the  quali- 
ty of  fruits.” — H,  Dawes,  in  Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii.  p.  380. 

To  assist  in  determining  the  extent  of  a garden,  Marshall 
observes,  that  an  acre^  with  wall  trees,  hot  beds,  &c.  will 
furnish  employment  for  one  man,  who,  at  some  busy  times, 
will  need  assistance.  Loudon  says,  “ To  give  some  rules 
for  the  quantity  of  ground  to  be  laid  out,  a family  of  four 
persons,  (exclusive  of  servants,)  should  have  a rood  of 
good-working,  open  ground,  and  so  in  proportion.”  Mr. 
Armstrong  observes,  that  “The  size  and  shape  of  the 
kitchen  garden  are  not  indifferent,  but  admit  of  no  positive 
rules  for  their  regulation,  because  depending  on  circum- 
stances rarely  alike  in  two  cases — the  nature  of  the  ground, 
and  the  wants  and  ©.bility  of  the  occupier.  On  these  heads, 
therefore,  we  only  say,  that  a parallelogram  and  a square  are 
the  forms  most  approved,  because  most  susceptible  of  a 
cheap,  easy,  and  regular  arrangement  into  beds ; and  that 
two  acres^  devoted  to  the  culture  of  table  vegetables,  will 
furnish  an  abundant  supply,  for  even  a large  family.” 

“The  ground  is  next  to  be  divided  into  quarters,  the 
size  of  which  ought  to  be  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the 
garden ; because,  if  these  divisions  be  too  small,  the  soil 
will  be  wasted  in  walks  ; and  as  the  quarters  are  generally 
enclosed  by  espaliers  of  fruit-trees,  the  vegetables  which 
may  be  planted  there  will  not  thrive,  for  want  of  sufficient 
exposure.  The  walks  should,  therefore,  be  proportioned 
to  the  size  of  the  ground ; and  in  a small  garden,  they  ought 
not  to  exceed  eight  feet;  or,  if  it  be  a large  one,  from  twelve 
to  fourteen  feet  in  breadth.  It  will  also  be  advisable  to 
place  a border,  three  or  four  feet  wide,  between  such  wall 
and  the  espalier,  in  which  maybe  sown  small  salads,  or  any 
similar  vegetables,  that  do  not  take  deep  root,  or  continue 


8 


INTRODUCTION 


long  in  the  ground.  These  quarters,  however,^ ought  not 
to  be  planted  or  sown,  for  raising  the  same  crops,  two  suc- 
cessive years ; and  the  warmest  soil,  or  that  which  is  next 
to  the  stable,  where  it  is  best  sheltered  from  the  cold  winds, 
will  be  the  most  proper  for  hot-beds,  to  promote  the  growth 
of  early  cucumbers,  melons,  &c.” — Dorn,  Encyc, 

A copious  supply  of  water  is  very  essential  to  a good 
kitchen  garden.  Loudon  remarks,  that  “ Many  kitchen 
crops  are  lost,  or  produced  of  very  inferior  quality,  for  want 
of  watering.  Lettuces  and  cabbages  are  often  hard  and 
stringy ; turnips  and  radishes  do  not  swell ; onions  decay  ; 
cauliflowers  die  off* ; and,  in  general,  in  dry  seasons,  all  the 
cruciferecB  bqcome  stinted  or  covered  with  insects,  even  in 
rich,  deep  soils.  Copious  waterings  in  the  evenings,  dur- 
ing the  dry  seasons,  would  produce  that  fulness  and  succu- 
lency  which  we  find  in  the  vegetables  produced  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  in  the  Marsh  Gardens  at  Paris,  and  in 
England  at  the  beginning  and  latter  end  of  the  season. 
The  vegetables  brought  to  the  London  market,  from  the 
Neat’s  Houses  and  other  adjoining  gardens,  where  the  im- 
portant article  of  watering  is  much  more  attended  to  than 
in  private  country  gardens,  may  be  adduced  as  affording 
proofs  of  the  advantage  of  the  practice. 

“ The  contrivance  for  watering  or  washing  the  foliage  of 
the  wall  trees  in  Dalmeny  garden,  laid  out  by  that  excellent 
horticultural  architect,  John  Hay,  deserves  particular  notice. 
Water  is  supplied  to  the  garden  from  a reservoir,  situated 
on  an  eminence,  a considerable  height  above  the  garden 
walls.  Around  tlie  whole  garden,  four  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  a groove,  between  two  and  three 
inches  deep,  has  been  formed  in  the  walls,  to  receive  a 
three  quarter  inch  pipe  for  conducting  the  water.  About 
fifty  feet  distant  from  each  other,  are  apertures  through  the 
w^all,  two  feet  and  a half  high,  and  ten  inches  wide,  in 
which  a cock  is  placed,  so  that,  on  turning  the  handle  to 
either  side  of  the  wall,  the  water  issues  from  that  side.  The 
nozles  of  the  cocks  have  screws  on  each  side,  to  which  is 
attached,  at  pleasure,  a leathern  pipe,  with  a brass  cock 
and  director;  roses,  pierced  with  holes  of  different  sizes, 
being  fitted  to  the  latter.  By  this  contrivance,  all  the  trees, 
both  inside  and  outside  the  wall,  can  be  most  effectually 
watered  and  washed  in  a very  short  space  of  time,  and 
with  very  little  trouble.  One  man  may  go  over  the  whole 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


in  two  hours.  At  the  same  time,  the  borders,  and  even  a 
considerable  part  of  the  compartments,  can  be  watered  with 
the  greatest  ease  when  required.  The  convenience  and 
utility  of  this  contrivance  must  at  once  be  perceived  by  eve- 
ry practical  horticulturist.  The  same  plan  of  introducing 
water  is  adopted  in  a garden,  which  J.  Hay  planned  and 
executed  for  Lord  V.  Duncan,  at  Lundie  House,  near  Dun- 
dee ; and,  after  the  experience  of  several  years,  it  has  been 
greatly  approved  of.  The  water  at  Lundie  is  conveyed  to 
the  garden  from  a considerable  height,  and  is  thrown  from 
the  point  of  the  director  with  great  force,  and  to  a good  dis- 
tance.”— Endin.  Encyc,  art.  Horticulture. 

Vegetables  that  are  newly  transplanted,  as  they  have 
their  roots  more  or  less  diminished,  or  otherwise  injured, 
often  need  watering,  until  they  have  taken  new  root.  But 
this  should  be  done  with  caution.  If  a dry  season  follow 
the  transplanting,  let  them  be  watered,  if  they  appear  to 
droop,  only  at  evenings,  and  in  cloudy  weather,  and  with 
water  which  has  been  exposed,  one  day  at  least,  to  the 
shining  of  the  sun  ; not  with  water  directly  from  a well,  or 
a cold  spring,  as  it  will  give  a chill  to  the  plants.  Only  a 
small  quantity  should  be  applied  at  once,  that  it  may  have 
an  effect  similar  to  that  of  a refreshing  rain ; for  water,  ap 
plied  too  plentifully,  sometimes  washes  away  the  finest  of 
the  mould  from  the  roots,  or  makes  little  cavities  about 
them,  which  admit  too  much  air. 

In  a dry  season,  whole  gardens  sometimes  need  water- 
ing; and,  in  doing  it,  the  above  precautions  should  bs 
regarded.  They  are  happy,  who  have  a piece  of  standing 
water  in  their  garden,  or  a rivulet  near  at  hand,  from 
whence  the  garden  may  be  watered  without  much  la- 
bour.”— Deane. 

In  laying  out  the  compartments  of  a garden,  Forsyth  ob- 
serves, ‘‘You  must  be  guided,  in  a great  measure,  by  the 
form  and  size  of  the  garden ; but  do  not  lay  them  out  too 
small,  as,  in  that  case,  a great  part  of  the  ground  vdll  be 
taken  up  with  walks  and  borders.  The  best  figure  is  a 
square,  or  oblong,  when  the  garden  is  of  that  form ; but  if 
not,  they  may  be  laid  out  in  any  other  figure  that  is  thought 
to  be  most  convenient.”  Some  of  the  compartments,  in 
some  of  our  best  gardens,  Neill  observes,  are  laid  out  in 
beds  four  feet  wide,  with  narrow  alleys.  So  many  alleys, 
no  doubt,  occupy  a deal  of  room ; but  advantages  of  conve- 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


niency  and  neatness  in  enabling  the  workmen  to  clean  and 
gather  the  crop,  without  trampling  the  ground,  seem  to 
compensate  the  sacrifice  of  space.  For  currant,  gooseberry, 
and  raspberry  bushes,  the  compartments  are,  of  course,  re- 
served  undivided ; and  narrow  beds  are  unnecessary  in  the 
case  of  large  perennial  plants,  such  as  artichokes  or  rhu- 
barb. 

Abercrombie  recommends  the  borders  next  the  walls  to 
be  made  of  prepared  soil,  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  wide, 
and  the  same  description  of  soil  extended  under  the  walks, 
in  order  to  allow  a liberal  width  for  the  roots  to  spread 
without  impediment.  Next  to  the  borders,  leave  a space 
for  a walk  entirely  round  the  garden,  from  four  to  six  feet 
wide.  Some  persons,  also,  choose  to  have  a border  on  the 
inward  side  of  the  walk,  for  the  cultivation  of  espaliers,  and 
esculents  of  a dwarf  growth;  others  divide  the  central 
parts  at  once  into  main  compartments  or  divisions.  The 
walks  or  alleys  must  be  regulated  by  convenience  of  access. 
Where  the  ground  is  extensive,  the  centre  should  be  trav- 
ersed by  a walk,  with  parallel  borders,  from  which  cross- 
walks may  branch,  if  necessary.”  The  herders  under  the 
walls,  Forsyth  observes,  “ should,  in  the  inside,  be  from 
ten  to  twenty  feet  vride,  according  to  the  size  of  the  garden, 
to  give  full  liberty  for  the  roots  of  the  trees  to  spread. 
There  should  be  a foot-path,  about  two  feet  and  a half  from 
the  wall,  for  the  greater  convenience  of  nailing  the  trees, 
gathering  the  fruit,  &c.  This  walk  should  be  from  two  to 
two  feet  and  a half  wide,  (to  admit  a barrow  or  barrow  en- 
gine for  watering  the  trees,)  and  covered  with  sand,  or, 
which  is  better,  coal-ashes,  about  two  or  three  inches  thick, 
but  without  any  gravel  or  rubbish  below.”  “ The  borders 
for  wall  trees,”  according  to  Nicol,  “ should  not  be  less 
than  twelve  feet  in  breadth ; but  fifteen  or  eighteen  feet  is 
not  too  much : that  is  to  say,  the  soil  should  be  prepared 
for  these  breadths,  if  it  be  not  naturally  good,  and  perfectly 
answerable  for  the  different  kinds  of  trees  to  be  planted.” 
— See  further  Encyc.  of  Gard.  p.  474. 

The  above  directions  are  mostly  copied  and  abridged  from 
European  writers  on  horticulture,  of  established  reputation. 
They  may,  perhaps,  prove  of  use  to  American  gardeners, 
though  they  may  not  apply,  in  their  full  extent,  to  the  soil,  ob- 
jects of  culture,  &c.  of  any  individual  cultivator.  Useful  hints 
may  be  gathered  from  precepts,  which,  taken  in  the  aggre- 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


^ate,  it  would  be  the  height  of  absurdity  to  be  guided  by 
It  was  well  remarked,  in  a little  work,  lately  published, 
entitled  Economy  of  the  Kitchen  Garden^  &c.  by  William 
Wilson,  of  JSew  York,  that  ‘‘  The  word  garden^  considered 
in  its  most  extensive  point  of  view,  embraces  such  a multi- 
plicity of  subjects,  which  properly  come  within  its  range,  that 
people  are  very  apt  to  enter  upon  the  formation  and  cultiva- 
tion of  one  under  a very  disadvantageous  and  erroneous  im- 
pression of  the  impracticability  of  having  one  of  any  value 
upon  a small  scale ; or  at  any  thing  short  of  a great  expense 
and  labour.  Whereas,  the  truth  of  the  matter  is,  that  the 
most  valuable  part  of  all  gardening,  the  raising  of  esculent 
vegetables,  is  an  employment  the  most  easily  accomplished 
by  those  who  are  possessed  of  the  hands  of  industry.”  A 
man  may  raise  garden  vegetables,  fruits,  &c.  and  receive 
benefit,  as  regards  their  culture,  from  books  on  horticulture, 
without  possessing  any  of  the  requisites  of  what  is  techni- 
cally called  a garden. 


■ ^ ‘'T : 'i 

.:.  :-!;•  J '..-  '.-:>  i-  - - 

, :■  -V.  -v-  •'  / : •■  : ■ 

* :■;  .s  .-■  >(  i'ii  i .- 

: 'm  >,  •'tfr  : n i 'tr 

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FRUITS  AND  VEGETABLES, 


ALPHABETICALLY  ARRANGED. 


APPLE. — Preservation  of  apples. — Apples  keep  best  in 
a low  temperature,  and  may  be  well  preserved  in  an  ice- 
house. An  English  journal  recommends  the  use  of  dry 
pit  sand  for  preserving  pears  and  apples.  Glazed  earthen 
jars  are  to  be  provided,  and  the  sand  to  be  thoroughly  dried. 
A layer  of  sand  an  inch  thick  is  then  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  jar ; above  this  a layer  of  fruit,  to  be  covered  with 
a layer  of  sand  an  inch  thick  ; then  lay  a second  stratum  of 
fruit,  covering  again  with  an  inch  of  sand.  An  inch  and  a 
half  of  sand  may  be  placed  over  the  uppermost  row  of  fruit. 
The  jar  is  now  to  be  closed,  and  placed  in  a dry  situation, 
as  cool  as  possible,  but  entirely  free  from  frost.  Some 
assert  that  apples  may  be  kept  in  casks  through  the  winter, 
in  a chamber  or  garret,  by  being  merely  covered  with  linen 
cloths.  Apples,  which  are  intended  for  winter’s  use,  should 
be  suffered  to  hang  on  the  tree  as  long  as  they  are  safe  from 
frost. 

Cobbett  says,  To  preserve  apples  in  their  whole  state, 
observe  this,  that  frost  does  not  much  injure  them,  provided 
they  be  kept  in  total  darkness  during  the  frost,  and  until 
they  be  used  ; and  provided  they  be  perfectly  dry  when  put 
away.  If  put  together  in  large  parcels,  and  kept  from  the 
frost,  they  heat^  and  then  they  rot ; and  those  of  them  that 
happen  not  to  rot,  lose  their  flavour,  become  vapid,  and  are, 
indeed,  good  for  little.  This  is  the  case  with  the  Newtown 
pippins  that  are  sent  to  England,  which  are  half  lost  by  rot, 
while  the  remainder  are  poor,  tasteless  stuff,  very  little  bet- 
ter than  the  English,  the  far  greater  part  of  which  are  either 
sour  or  mawkish.  The  apples  thus  sent  have  every  pos- 
sible disadvantage.  They  are  gathered  carelessly,  tossed 
into  baskets,  and  tumbled  into  barrels  at  once,  and  without 
any  packing  stuff  between  them  : the  barrels  are  flung  into 
2 


14 


APPLE. 


and  out  of  wagons  ; they  are  rolled  along  upon  the  pave- 
ments ; they  are  put  into  the  hold,  or  between  the  decks  ; 
and  is  it  any  wonder,  that  a barrel  of  pomace^  instead  of 
apples^  arrives  at  Liverpool  or  London  ! If,  instead  of  this 
careless  work,  the  apples  were  gathered,  (a  week  before  ripe;) 
not  bruised  at  all  in  the  gathering ; laid  in  the  sun  on 
boards  or  cloths  three  days  to  let  the  watery  particles  evap- 
orate a little  ; put  into  barrels  with  fine  cut  straw-chaff,  in 
such  a way  as  that  no  apple  touched  another ; carefully 
carried  to  the  ship,  and  put  on  board,  and  as  carefully  landed ; 
if  this  were  the  mode,  one  barrel,  though  it  would  contain 
only  half  the  quantity,  would  sell  for  as  much  as,  upon  an 
average,  taking  in  loss  by  total  destruction,  twenty  barrels 
sell  for  now.  On  the  deck  is  the  best  part  of  the  ship  for 
apples  ; but,  if  managed  as  I have  directed,  between  decks 
would  do  very  well.  In  the  keeping  of  apples  for  market 
or  for  house  use,  the  same  precautions  ought  to  be  observed 
as  in  gathering  and  laying  out  to  dry  ; and,  perhaps,  to  pack 
in  the  same  way,  also,  is  the  best  mode  that  can  be  dis- 
covered. 

“ Dried  apples  is  an  article  of  great  and  general  use. 
Every  body  knows  that  the  apples  are  peeled,  cut  into 
about  eight  pieces,  the  core  taken  out,  and  the  pieces  put 
in  the  sun  till  they  become  dry  and  tough.  They  are  then 
put  by  in  bags  or  boxes  in  a dry  place.  But  the  flesh  of 
the  apple  does  not  change  its  nathre  in  the  drying ; and, 
therefore,  the  finest,  and  not  the  coarsest  apples  should  have 
all  this  trouble  bestowed  upon  them.” 

The  following  valuable  observations,  contained  in  a letter 
from  Noah  Webster,  Esq.  have  been  published  in  the  Mas- 
sachusetts  Agricultural  Repository  : — 

‘‘  It  is  the  practice  with  some  persons  to  pick  apples  in 
October,  and  first  spread  them  on  the  floor  of  an  upper 
room.  This  practice  is  said  to  render  apples  more  durable, 
by  drying  them.  But  I can  affirm  this  to  be  a mistake. 
Apples,  after  remaining  on  the  trees  as  long  as  safety  from 
the  frost  will  admit,  should  be  taken  directly  from  the  trees 
to  close  casks,  and  kept  dry  and  cool  as  possible.  If  suf- 
fered to  lie  on  a floor  for  weeks,  they  wither  and  lose  their 
flavour,  without  acquiring  any  additional  durability.  The 
best  mode  of  preserving  apples  for  spring  use,  I have  found 
to  be,  the  putting  them  in  dry  sand  as  soon  as  picked.  For 


APPLE. 


15 


this  purpose,  I dry  sand  in  the  heat  of  summer,  and  late  in 
October  put  down  the  apples  m layers,  with  a covering  of 
sand  upon  each  layer.  The  singular  advantages  of  this 
mode  of  treatment  are  these: — 1st.  The  sand  keeps  the 
apples  froryi  the  air,  which  is  essential  to  their  preservation. 
2d.  The  sand  checks  the  evaporation  or  perspiration  of  the 
apples,  thus  preserving  in  them  their  full  flavour ; at  the 
same  time,  any  moisture  yielded  by  the  apples  (and  some 
there  will  be)  is  absorbed  by  the  sand  : so  that  the  apples 
are  kept  dry,  and  all  mustiness  is  prevented.  My  pippins 
in  May  and  June  are  as  fresh  as  when  first  picked ; even 
the  ends  of  the  stems  look  as  if  just  separated  from  the 
twig.” 

Apples,  it  is  said,  may  well  be  preserved  by  packing  in 
any  kind  of  grain ; also  in  paper  cuttings  of  the  book- 
binder ; or  in  shallow  pits,  between  layers  of  turf,  the  grassy 
side  inwards,  with  a sufficient  covering  of  straw  and  earth 
to  protect  them  from  frost ; likewise  in  dry  flax-seed  chaff, 
or  pulverized  plaster  of  Paris. 

A letter  from  Ebenezer  Preble,  Esq.  published  in  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository^  Vol.  iv.  No.  i.  p.  24, 
contains  the  following  useful  directions  on  this  subject : — 
‘‘  The  general  method  of  gathering  apples  for  cider,  is, 
shaking  the  tree,  and  thrashing  the  branches  with  poles. 
The  former  will  answer  when  the  fruit  is  at  maturity ; they 
will  then  drop  without  injury  to  the  buds.  Poles  should 
never  be  used  but  with  a hook  at  the  end,  covered  with 
cloth  or  matts  to  prevent  wounding  the  bark ; they  then 
serve  to  shake  the  small  limbs.  Particular  attention  is  re- 
quired in  gathering  winter  fruit.  They  should  be  taken  in 
the  hand,  the  fingers  placed  at  the  foot  stalk,  and,  by  bend- 
ing it  upwards,  the  fruit  is  gathered  with  ease,  and  without 
injury;  they  should  be  moved  from  the  gathering  baskets 
with  great  care,”  &c.  The  same  writer  says,  “ The  inju- 
dicious method  practised  in  gathering  fruit,  is  more  destruc- 
tive in  its  consequences,  than  is  generally  understood ; the 
blossom  buds  of  the  succeeding  year  are  placed  at  the  side 
of  the  foot  stalk  of  the  fruit,  and  if  the  spurs  are  broken,  no 
fruit  on  that  part  will  be  produced.” — See  further ^ Fruit. 

Use, — For  pies,  tarts,  sauces,  and  the  dessert,  the  use  of 
the  apple  is  too  well  known  to  require  description.  In 
France,  bread  is  made  consisting  of  one  third  of  boiled  apple 


16 


APPLE. 


pulp,  baked  with  two  thirds  flour,  properly  fermented  w’  K 
yeast  for  twelve  hours.  This  bread  is  said  to  be  very  fine* 
full  of  eyes,  and  extremely  palatable  and  light.  Apples, 
by  furnishing  cider,  a grateful  and  salubrious  liquor,  have  a 
tendency  to  diminish  the  consumption  of  ardent  spirits. 
Besides,  apples  are  thought  to  alter  and  ameliorate  the  taste 
and  the  tone  of  the  human  system,  in  such  a manner  as  to 
destroy  that  artificial  appetite,  which  is  gratified  by  the 
deleterious  preparations  of  alcohol.  The  palate,”  says 
Mr.  Knight,  a celebrated  English  horticulturist,  “ which 
relishes  fruit,  is  seldom  pleased  with  strong  fermented 
liquors  ; and  as  feeble  causes,  continually  acting,  ultimately 
produce  extensive  effects,  the  supplying  the  public  with 
fruit  at  a cheap  rate,  would  have  a tendency  to  operate  fa- 
vourably, both  on  the  physical  and  moral  health  of  the 
people.”  In  medicine,  verjuice,  or  the  juice  of  crab-apples, 
is  used  for  sprains,  and  as  an  astringent  and  repellent.  The 
good  table  apple,  when  ripe,  is  laxative  ; the  juice  is  useful 
in  dysenteries;  boiled  or  roasted  apples  fortify  a weak 
stomach.  Scopoli,”  says  Loudon,  ‘‘recovered  from  a 
M^eakness  of  the  stomach  and  indigestion  from  using  them  ; 
and  they  are  equally  efficacious,  in  putrid  and  malignant  fe- 
vers, with  the  juice  of  lemons  or  currants.”  “ In  diseases 
of  the  breast,”  says  Dr.  Willich,  (Dom,  Ency.)  “such  as 
catarrhs,  coughs,  consumptions,  &c.  they  are  of  consider- 
able service.  For  these  beneficial  purposes,  however,  they 
ought  not  to  be  eaten  raw,  but  either  roasted,  stewed,  or 
boiled.  They  may  also  be  usefully  employed  in  decoctions, 
which,  if  drank  plentifully,  tend  to  abate  febrile  heat,  as 
well  as  to  relieve  painful  strictures  in  pectoral  complaints.” 

Apples  have  also  been  recommended  as  food  for  horses 
and  farm  stock,  for  which  purpose  sweet  apples  are  of  the 
greatest  value. — See  N,  E*  Farmer^  vol.  v.  p.  82.  Sweet 
apples  are  said,  likewise,  to  afford  a saccharine  matter, 
which  is  a good  substitute  for  molasses.  For  this  purpose 
the  apples  are  ground  and  pressed  in  a cider  mill,  and  the 
juice  boiled  immediately,  the  scum  being  taken  off  till  it  is 
reduced  to  a proper  consistence. 

The  following  process  for  making  apple  jelly  has  been 
recommended  : — Pare  and  quarter  the  apples,  and  remove 
the  core  completely.  Then  put  them  into  a pot,  and  place 
it  in  a heated  oven,  or  over  a slow  fire.  When  well  stewed, 


APPLE-TREE. 


17 


squeeze  out  the  juice  through  a cloth,  to  which  add  a little 
of  the  w hite  of  an  egg.  Boil  it  to  a proper  consistence, 
skimming  just  before  it  begins  to  boil. 

APPLE-TREE. — Pyrus  mato.~In  propagating  the  apple- 
tree,  the  common  method  in  New  England  has  been  U sow 
the  pomace  from  late  made  cider,  without  regard  to  the 
quality  of  the  apples  producing  the  pomace.  But  we  doubt 
very  much  whether  this  is  the  best  mode  of  raising  this  val- 
uable fruit-tree.  The  seeds  for  a nursery  should,  we  think, 
be  selected  from  the  best  varieties  of  apples  which  can  be 
procured ; and  this  for  the  simple  reason  that  “ like  produces 
its  likeness.”  It  is  as  expedient  to  propagate  from  the  best 
individuals  of  the  vegetable  as  of  the  animal  creation.  In 
proof  of  this  theory,  we  would  cite  the  following  from  a 
communication  to  Dr.  Mease  of  Philadelphia,  addressed  to 
him  by  Mr.  Joseph  Cooper,  of  New  Jersey,  an  accurate 
observer  and  scientific  cultivator : — 

“ Experience  for  more  than  fifty  years  has  convinced  me 
that,  although  seedlings  from  apples  will  scarcely  ever  pro- 
duce fruit,  in  New  Jersey,  exactly  similar  to  the  original, 
yet  many  of  them  will  produce  excellent  fruit ; some  will  be 
even  superior  to  the  apples  from  which  the  seeds  were  taken 
This  fact  has  led  me  to  plant  seeds  from  the  largest  and  best 
kinds  of  fruit,  and  from  trees  of  a strong  and  rapid  growth, 
and  to  let  all  young  trees  bear  fruit  before  grafting,  which 
produced  an  uncommonly  strong  shoot,  or  large,  rich  looking 
leaf.  I have  seldom  known  them  fail  of  bearing  fruit  hav- 
ing some  good  quality ; at  all  events,  they  make  stocks  to 
put  any  good  kind  on,  which  may  afterwards  present  itself.” 
Loudon  observes,  that  ‘‘  the  apple,  like  most  other  hardy 
trees,  may  be  propagated  by  seeds,  cuttings,  suckers,  layers, 
or  engrafting ; by  seeds,  for  obtaining  new  varieties,  and  by 
the  other  modes  for  continuing  such  as  are  in  esteem.  The 
seeds  should  be  taken  from  fruits  having  the  properties  it  is 
desired  to  perpetuate  or  improve  in  the  greatest  degree.  In 
collecting  seeds  to  sow,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
habits  as  w^ell  as  the  diseases  of  plants  are  often  hereditary, 
and  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  state  of  the  tree  from 
which  the  seeds  are  taken ; it  should  be  large,  and  of  free 
growth,  and  rather  in  a growing  state  than  one  of  maturity 
or  decay.” — See  Cuttings,  Engrafting,  Layers,  Nurse- 
ry, Orchard,  Scions,  in  their  alphabetical  order. 


18 


APRICOT. ARTICHOKE. 


Manure  for  apple-trees. — Rotten  leaves  of  trees  are  recom- 
mended by  Forsyth  as  the  best  manure  for  fruit-trees,  w^hich, 
he  says,  is  ‘‘  much  better  than  dung,  which  I by  no  means 
approve  of  for  trees,  unless  it  be  perfectly  rotten,  and  mixed 
up  with  mould.  It  is  better,  however,  not  to  make  use  of 
such  leaves  as  manure  for  fruit-trees  unless  it  be  perfectly 
rotten,  and  reduced  to  a fine  vegetable  mould.” — Forsythes 
Treatise  on  Fruit-Trees^  pp.  62,  63,  American  edition. 

Use. — Besides  the  uses  to  which  the  fruit  of  this  valuable 
tree  is  applicable,  the  bark  will  produce  a yellow  colour, 
and  the  wood  is  used  in  turning  and  various  purposes,  where 
hardness,  compactness,  and  variegation  of  colour  are  objects. 

APRICOT. — Prunus  Armeniaca. — The  apricot-tree  may 
be  procured  from  the  stone,  like  the  peach  ; and  approved 
sorts  are  perpetuated  by  budding,  either  on  their  own  stocks 
or  on  plum  stocks.  They  require  the  same  sort  of  treat- 
ment as  the  peach  and  nectarine  tree.  The  soil,  which 
suits  them  best,  is  a rich  black  mould,  according  to  some 
writers,  but  others  recommend  a light  loam.  “ In  our  cli- 
mate,” says  Dr.  Thacher,  this  tree  should  be  screened 
from  easterly  and  northerly  winds ; otherwise,  it  is  said, 
they  will  not  bear  fruit,  though  they  may  grow  very  large. 
They  do  not  attain  to  a bearing  state  so  soon  as  the  peach 
by  one  year.  Some  kinds  ripen  their  fruit  much  earlier 
than  others.  The  following  are  those  best  adapted  to  our 
climate  : 


The  black  apricot, 
The  Brussels  apricot, 
The  Breda  apricot. 
The  early  apricot, 


The  large  early  apricot, 
The  peach  apricot. 

The  Moor’s  Park  apricot. 
The  Turkey  apricot. 


ARTICHOKE.-- Cynam  scolymus. — There  are,  according 
to  Loudon,  three  varieties  cultivated — conical,  French,  or 
oval  artichoke,  with  green  head.  The  head  is  oval,  the 
scales  open,  and  not  turned  in  at  the  top,  as  in  the  globe 
sort. . Globe,  or  largest,  with  dusky,  purplish  head.  The 
scales  are  turned  in  at  top,  and  the  receptacle  more  succu- 
lent than  the  other.  The  dwarfish  globe,  a prolific  variety, 
and  valuable  as  occupying  little  room  with  its  head.  The 
globe  kind  is  the  only  one  usually  cultivated  in  this  coun- 
try. 

In  making  new  plantations,  select  deep,  rich,  light  loam, 
not  liable  to  retain  much  wet  in  winter,  nor  to  be  very  dry 


ARTICHOKE. 


19 


in  summer.  Let  it  have  a gentle  slope,  sufficient  to  carry  off 
any  moisture  that  might  lodge  in  the  trenches  between  the 
rows,  for  that  is  more  injurious  to  the  roots  in  winter  than 
the  severest  frost.  Lay  on  a good  quantity  of  rotten  dung, 
and  trench  the  ground  eighteen  inches  deep,  incorporating 
the  manure  well  therewith,  and  thoroughly  pulverizing 
the  ground  in  digging  ; then  proceed  to  slip  off  the  young 
shoots  from  the  mother  stools,  with  all  the  roots  and  fibres 
they  may  have  thrown  out,  and  close  the  earth  about  the 
remaining  shoots.  These  being  provided,  pull  off  any  loose 
hanging  leaves,  and  trim  the  fibres;  then  plant  them  with  a 
dibble  about  four  or  five  inches  deep,  in  rows  five  feet  asun- 
der, and  two  feet  apart  in  the  row,  leaving  part  of  their  green 
tops  above  ground,  and  the  hearts  of  the  plants  free  from 
any  earth  over  them ; be  careful  also  to  give  each  plant  a 
little  water  to  settle  the  earth  about  its  roots. 

Or,  if  you  have  seedling  year  old  plants  in  a seed  bed, 
you  may  take  them  up,  and  after  shortening  the  tap  roots 
a little,  and  dressing  their  leaves,  plant  them  as  above. 

Subsequent  culture, — “ All  spring  and  summer  keep  them 
clear  from  weeds,  by  occasionally  hoeing  between  the 
plants ; this,  with  regular  waterings  in  the  dry  weather  of 
summer,  is  all  the  culture  which  they  require,  till  the  sea- 
son of  production  has  terminated.  They  will  produce 
some  tolerable  heads  the  same  year  in  August,  and  thence 
till  November ; next  year  they  will  head  sooner  in  full 
perfection.  By  having  fresh  stools  planted  every  year  or 
two,  the  old  and  new  plantations  together  furnish  a produc- 
tion of  heads  from  June  or  July  till  November.  Besides 
the  main  head,  several  smaller  lateral  heads  generally 
spring  from  the  sides  of  the  stem  in  succession  ; but,  in 
order  to  encourage  the  principal  head  to  attain  the  full  size, 
most  of  the  side  suckers  should  be  detached  in  young 
growths,  when  their  heads  are  the  size  of  a large  egg, 
which  in  that  state  are  also  prepared  for  some  tables.  As 
to  the  continuing  main  heads,  permit  them  to  have  full 
growth  till  the  scales  begin  to  diverge  considerably,  but 
gather  them  before  the  flowers  appear,  cutting  to  each  head 
a part  of  the  stalk.  When  the  entire  crop  on  a stem  is 
taken,  cut  off  the  stem  close  to  the  ground,  to  give  the 
plant  more  strength  for  new  shoots.” — Abercrombie,  “ To 
encourage  the  production  of  large  main  heads,  some  detach 


20 


ARTICHOKE. 


all  the  lateral  heads  in  a young  state.  These  are  common- 
ly in  a fit  state  for  eating  raw,  having  attained  about  one 
third  of  their  proper  size ; and  they  are  for  this  purpose 
frequently  sold  in  Covent  Garden  market,  chiefly  to  for- 
eigners. Another  thing  practised,  with  the  same  view,  is 
the  shortening  the  ends  of  the  large  leaves.” — in 
Ed,  Encyc, 

Winter  dressing, — Abercrombie  says,  “ First  cut  down  all 
the  large  leaves,  but  without  hurting  the  small  central  ones, 
or  the  new  shoots.  Then  dig  the  ground  between  and  along 
each  row ; raising  it  gradually  from  both  sides,  ridgeways, 
over  the  roots,  and  close  about  the  plants.  In  rigorous  frosty 
weather,  cover  also  in  the  litter,  and  close  about  each  plant.” 
Armstrong  remarks,  that  various  means  have  been  em- 
ployed for  preserving  the  outstanding  plants  during  the 
winter.  That  which  is  most  commonly  used  is,  after  strip- 
ping off*  the  dead  or  decaying  leaves,  and  trimming  down 
the  sound  ones  to  three  or  four  inches,  to  open  trenches 
around  the  plant,  and  to  draw  about  it  the  earth  furnished 
by  these.  This  is  again  covered  with  long  dung  or  stable 
litter,  so  as  entirely  to  exclude  rain,  and  snow,  and  frost. 
But,  in  making  those  provisions  against  cold  and  wet  weath- 
er, we  must  not  forget,  that  it  is  possible  to  be  careful  over- 
much ; for  if  the  mounds  of  earth  and  litter  be  large  and 
close,  we  expose  our  plants  to  suffocation  from  want  of  air ; 
to  exhaustion  from  a continued  vegetation,  and  to  scorch- 
ing, from  the  fermentation  of  the  covering  matter,  which, 
if  the  weather  be  wet,  and  but  occasionally  warm,  seldom 
fails  to  occur. 

To  obviate  these  difficulties,  it  has  been  proposed,  that 
the  mounds  be  gradually  formed ; that  the  first  covering  be 
merely  a wrapping  of  long  dung,  and  that  the  additions 
made  to  it  be  conformed  to  the  weather,  leaving  openings, 
in  all  cases,  on  its  southern  side,  for  the  purposes  of  venti- 
lation, and  in  no  case  to  permit  the  covering  to  exceed  two 
feet  in  thickness.  But  even  this  mode  of  treatment  is  not 
free  from  objection ; for,  first,  the  direct  application  of  the 
dung  to  the  plant  will  always  alter  its  flavour,  and  very 
much  degrade  it;  and  again,  the  capriciousness  of  the 
weather  does  not  generally  give  either  warning  of  its  chan- 
ges, or  time  to  accommodate  ourselves  to  them  ; they  often 
take  place  in  the  night,  and  often  (whether  in  the  night,  or  in 


ARTICHOKE. 


21 


the  day)  under  circumstances  which  prevent  us  from  giving 
the  plant  the  additional  covering  it  may  require.  Two 
other  methods,  therefore,  not  dissimilar  in  themselves,  have 
been  suggested — the  one  to  employ  hollow  cylinders  of 
earthen  ware,  covered  with  a tile  or  piece  of  slate,  and.  of 
capacity  sufficient  to  embrace  the  plant  ; the  other  to  form 
caps  of  straw,  (such  as  are  used  for  lodging  bees,)  and 
having  a moveable  top  of  the  same  material.  To  the  last 
method  we  see  no  room  for  objectipn  ; in  application  it  is 
easy,  requiring  no  skill  and  but  little  labour,  while  the  ma- 
terial and  workmanship  are  both  cheap  and  durable,  and 
their  property  of  excluding  rain,  snow  and  frost,  not  to  be 
doubted.” 

Spring  dressing, — In  spring,  the  litter  and  earth  being 
removed  in  March  or  April,  (April  or  May  in  this  country,) 
according  to  the  season,  the  stocks  are  examined ; and  two 
or  three  of  the  strongest  or  best  shoots  being  selected  for 
growing,  the  rest  are  removed  by  pressure  with  the  thumb, 
or  by  a knife,  or  wooden  chisel.  Those  shoots,  or  suckers, 
are  used  for  new  plantations.  Dig  the  whole  ground  level, 
loosening  it  to  the  crown  of  the  roots  of  every  plant.” — - 
Loudon. 

Duration  of  the  plants, — Artichoke  plants  continue  pro- 
ductive for  several  years;  but,  every  season,  some  well 
rotted  dung,  or  fresh  sea-weed,  should  be  delved  into  the 
ground  at  the  winter  dressing.  It  is  certain,  however,  that, 
after  a few  years,  the  plants  begin  to  degenerate,  the  heads 
becoming  smaller  and  less  succulent.  It  is  therefore  a 
general  rule,  not  to  keep  an  artichoke  plantation  beyond 
four,  or,  at  most,  six  years.  Scarcely  any  kind  of  grub  oi 
wire-worm  ever  touches  the  roots  of  artichokes : they 
form,  therefore,  an  excellent  preparative  for  a crop  of  on- 
ions, shallot  or  garlic.  In  many  gardens,  a small  new 
plantation  is  formed  every  year ; and  in  this  way  the  arti- 
choke season,  which  begins  in  June,  is  prolonged  till 
November;  those  from  the  old^stock  continuing  till  August, 
when  those  from  the  new  stocks  come  in.  If  the  last 
gathered  be  cut  with  the  stems  at  full  length,  and  if  these 
be  stuck  among  moist  sand,  the  heads  may  be  preserved  a 
month  longer. 

Seed, — “ The  heads,  when  suffered  to  remain  ten  days, 
or  a fortnight,  after  the  season  of  cutting,  expand  the  calix 


22 


ASPARAGUS. 


leaves,  and  display  an  aggregation  of  jagged  purple  florets, 
producing  a fine  appearance.  When  ripe  seed  is  wanted, 
those  heads  in  flower  are  to  be  bent  down,  and  retained  in 
that  position,  so  as  that  the  calix  may  throw  off  the  autum- 
nal rains.  In  general,  however,  the  seed  is  not  perfecte*d 
in  oiir  [the  British]  climate.” — Loudon.  Armstrong  says, 
“ Every  gardener,  who  understands  his  trade,  will  take  care 
to  set  apart  a few  of  the  finest  heads  of  his  own  crop  for 
seed ; but,  as  the  stock  is  upright,  and  the  head  so  formed 
as  to  receive  and  hold  water,  it  often  happens  that  the 
seeds  rot.  To  prevent  this,  the  stems  of  the  plants,  so  set 
apart,  should  be  tied  to  stakes  driven  into  the  ground  near 
them,  and  gradually  bent,  so  as  to  give  to  the  heads  that 
degree  of  declination,  that  will  be  sufficient  to  carry  off  the 
water,  that  may  fall  upon  them.” 

Use. — In  England,  the  full  heads  only  are  eaten,  always 
boiled.  In  Italy,  they  eat  the  young  heads  raw,  with  oil, 
salt  and  pepper.  The  stalks  are  eaten  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, boiled  and  seasoned  with  butter  and  vinegar.  The 
flowers  have  the  property  of  rennet,  and  have  sometimes 
been  used  as  a substitute  for  that  article. 

ASPARAGU S. — Asparagus  officinalis. — Soil. — Asparagus 
ground  should  be  light,  yet  rich : a sandy  loam,  well  mixed 
with  rotten  dung,  or  sea-weed,  is  recommended. 

Preparation. — A good  quantity  of  dung  trenched  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  below  the  surface. 

Propagation. — It  is  best  to  raise  this  plant  from  seeds, 
although  the  sprouts  from  seeds  will  not  be  fit  to  cut  so 
soon  by  a year  as  from  the  roots.  The  seeds  should  be 
dead  ripe,  when  gathered,  and  taken  from  the  strongest 
and  most  compact  shoots. 

Quantity  of  seeds  or  roots. — If  sown  to  transplant,  for  a 
bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  six  feet  in  length,  one 
quart  of  seed  will  be  requisite.  If  sown  to  remain,  for  a 
bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  thirty  feet  in  length,  one 
pint  is  necessary.  If  plants  a year  old  are  wanted  for  a 
plantation,  then  for  a bed  four  feet  and  a half  wide  by  thirty 
feet  in  length,  to  contain  four  rows  of  plants  nine  inches 
distant  in  the  row,  one  hundred  and  sixty  plants  will  be 
requisite.  The  seeds  may  be  sown  as  early  as  the  season 
will  permit  in  the  spring,  or  (according  to  Cobbett)  three 
weeks,  or  about,  before  the  frost  sets  in”  in  the  fall — and 


ASPARAGUS.  23 

^ press  the  earth  well  down  about  the  seed  ; and,  as  soon 
as  the  frost  sets  in,  but  not  before,  cover  the  ground  with 
muck  or  litter,  a foot  deep,  and  lay  some  boards  or  poles  to 
prevent  its  blowing  oif.  As  soon  as  the  frost  breaks  up  in 
the  sj)ring,  take  off  the  litter,  and  you  will  have  the  plants 
quickly  up.” 

Asparagus  beds  may  be  from  four  to  four  and  a half  feet 
wide,  with  alleys  of  two  feet  in  width  between  them.  In 
these  beds  ‘‘  the  soil  should  not  be  less  than  two  feet  and  a 
half  deep,  and,  before  planting  a bed,  it  is  considered  good 
practice  to  trench  it  over  to  that  depth,  burying  plenty  of  dung 
in  the  bottom,  as  no  more  can  be  applied  there  for  eight  or 
ten  years.  It  can  scarcely,  therefore,  be  too  well  dunged ; be- 
sides, though  the  plant  naturally  grows  in  poor,  sandy  soil, 
it  is  found  that  the  sweetness  and  tenderness  of  the  shoots 
depend  very  much  on  the  rapidity  of  the  growth ; and  this 
is  promoted  by  the  richness  of  the  soil.  Damp  ground,  or 
a wet  subsoil,  is  not  fit  for  asparagus.  Indeed  the  French 
consider  wetness  as  so  prejudicial  to  this  plant,  that  they 
raise  their  asparagus  beds  about  a foot  above  the  alleys,  in 
order  to  throw  off  the  rain.” — Hort.  Trans. 

Method  of  planting. — Stretch  a line  lengthwise  the  bed 
nine  inches  from  the  edge,  and  with  a spade  cut  out  a small 
trench  about  six  inches  deep,  perpendicular  next  to  the 
line,  turning  the  earth  displaced  along  by  the  other  side  of 
the  trench  ; and,  having  the  plants  ready,  set  a row  along 
the  trench,  nine  inches  apart,  with  the  crown  of  the  roots 
two  inches  below  the  surface,  drawing  some  earth,  just  to 
fix  them  as  placed*  Having  planted  one  row,  directly 
cover  them  in  fully  with  the  earth  of  the  trench,  raking 
it  back  regularly  an  equal  depth  over  the  crown  of  the 
plants.  Proceed  then  to  open  another  trench  a foot  from 
the  first : plant  it  as  above ; and  in  the  same  manner  plant 
four  rows  in  each  bed.  Then,  lightly  raking  the  beds 
lengthwise,  draw  off  any  stones  and  hard  clods,  and  dress  the 
surface  neat  and  even.  Then  let  the  edges  be  lined  out  in 
exact  order,  allowing  three  feet  for  each  alley.  But  some- 
times, in  planting  large  compartments  of  asparagus,  a first 
trench  having  been  made,  and  the  roots  placed  as  above, 
then  a second  trench  is  opened,  of  which  the  earth  is  turn- 
ed into  the  first  over  the  plants.  So  proceed  in  planting 
the  whole ; making  allowance  between  every  four  rows  for 


24 


ASPARAGUS. 


an  alley  of  three  feet  [more  or  less].  In  a dry  spring  or 
summer,  water  the  roots  from  time  to  time,  till  the  plants 
are  established.” — Abercrombie,  It  is  of  very  great  im- 
portance to  take  up  the  roots  carefully,  and  expose  them  to 
the  air  as  little  as  possible  before  planting. 

If  you  would  raise  asparagus  directly  from  seed, 
without  transplanting,  you  may  sow  two  or  three  seeds  in 
the  places  designated  above  for  setting  the  plants,  and  cover 
them  with  an  inch  of  good  soil.  When  the  plants  are  up, 
they  should  be  thinned  to  one  in  a place.  Armstrong  says, 
the  crowns  of  the  roots  must  be  placed  upright,  and  the 
pattesy  [or  fingers,]  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  spread 
and  directed  downwards ; for  on  their  taking  (to  the  food 
provided  for  them)  the  prosperity  of  the  plantation  will 
principally  depend.” 

The  following  are  the  directions  for  the  culture  of  this 
root,  given  in  the  Catalogue  of  Seeds^  &c.  for  sale  by 
John  B.  Russell,  Boston  ; and,  perhaps,  are  as  much  to 
the  purpose  as  those  which  are  more  prolix,  minute  and 
circumstantial  : 

“ Sown  in  April  and  May,  in  the  same  manner  as  onions, 
in  rows,  eighteen  inches  apart.  Let  it  stand  one  or  two 
years — transplant  into  trenches  four  feet  wide,  dug,  if  the 
soil  will  admit,  fifteen  inches  deep — fill  up  six  inches  with 
rotten  manure — ^place  tho  roots  fourteen  inches  apart.” 

In  a Treatise  on  Gardening^  by  J.  Armstrong,  of  Dutch- 
ess, published  in  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Agriculture,^  vol.  ii.,  it  is  said,  “ If  we  can  postpone  the 
use  of  the  plant  for  a year  or  twp,  sowing  is  to  be  prefer- 
red, because  the  crop  it  gives,  (other  things  being  equal,) 
though  later  in  coming,  is  more  abundant,  of  better  quality, 
and  of  longer  duration ; but,  if  our  supply  must  be  prompt, 
planting  is  best,  for,  by  this  mode,  we,  no  doubt,  soonest 
obtain  the  fruit.” 

The  same  writer  directs  to  plant  roots  of  three  years  old, 
instead  of  those  of  one  or  two  years  old,  according  to 
the  usual  practice  ; and  says,  roots  of  three  years  will 
not  only  give  fruit  sooner  than  those  of  one,  or  two  years, 
but,  their  fibres  being  harder,  and  roots  more  numerous,  are 
better  able  to  sustain  the  violence  inseparable  from  trans- 
plantation, and  the  other  accidents,  (such  as  heating  and 


ASPARAGUS. 


25 


chafing,)  which  often  accompany  it,  particularly  if  the 
roots  be  brought  from  a distance.’’ 

Extent  of  the  plantation. — An  asparagus  compartment 
should  not  contain  less  than  a pole  of  ground,  as  it  often 
needs  this  quantity  to  furnish  a good  dish  at  one  time.  For 
a large  family,  about  sixteen  rods  are  kept  in  a productive 
state,  which  are  calculated  to  furnish,  on  an  average,  be- 
tween two  hundred  and  three  hundred  shoots  every  day  in 
the  height  of  the  season. — Neill^  in  Ed.  Encyc. 

Progressive  culture. — In  the  month  of  March  or  April, 
(during  the  whole  existence  of  the  plant,)  the  beds  must 
be  carefully  forked  and  dressed,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds. 
Occasional  waterings  are  necessary,  till  the  third  or  fourth 
year,  wnen  the  plants  will  be  sufficiently  established  to  do 
without  them.  Permit  the  entire  crop  the  two  first  years, 
and  the  greater  part  of  it  the  third  year,  to  run  up  to  stalks. 
It  is  a common  practice  to  sow  onions,  lettuce,  &c.  the  two 
first  years.  Mr.  Loudon,  however,  says,  the  advantage 
of  this  practice  is  questionable ; and,  at  all  events,  it  should 
not  be  continued  after  the  plants  are  in  full  bearing.” 

Asparagus  beds  should  be  completely  loosened  to  a mod- 
erate depth,  every  spring,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground,  with  a proper  fork,  having  three  short  tines,  six  to 
eight  or  nine  inches  long.  But  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
go  too  deep,  so  as  to  wound  the  crowns  of  the  roots.  The 
beds,  being  loosened  in  every  part  to  a moderate  depth, 
should  be  raked  even,  before  the  buds  begin  to  advance 
In  autumn,  after  the  tops  are  turned  white  by  the  frost, 
they  should  be  cleared  off,  and  a layer  of  dung,  or  rich 
soil,  an  inch  thick,  laid  over  the  bed.  This  should  be  done 
yearly,  and  the  bed  kept  clear  of  weeds.  If  the  bed  should 
get  too  high  by  this  management,  the  surface  may  be  taken 
off  with  a spade,  early  in  th^  spring,  to  the  depth  of  twc 
inches,  before  the  young  shoots  are  in  the  way.  But  wher 
this  is  done,  a thin  dressing  of  rotten  dung  or  compost 
should  be  laid  on.  This  plant,  according  to  Deane'^s  N. 
E.  Farmer.,  grows  well  in  ground  that  is  shaded.  The 
sprouts  will  be  very  large  and  tender ; but  they  will  not  be 
so  early.  It  is  not  amiss  to  have  one  bed  in  a shady  place, 
to  supply  the  table,  after  the  season  is  over  for  cutting  the 
first. 

Tbne  of  cutting. — “ If  you  plant  roots,  the  snoots  may  be 

3 


26 


ASPARAGUS. 


cut  the  second  year  after  ; if  seeds,  they  will  not  be  fit  to 
cut  till  the  third  year.  All  the  shoots,  which  come  up  be- 
fore the  middle  of  June,  may  be  cut  off  without  injuring 
the  roots ; after  which  time,  the  late  shoots  should  be  left 
to  run  up,  and  go  to  seed ; otherwise  the  roots  will  be  weak- 
ened.”— Deane, 

Cutting  and  gathering. — “In  new  plantations,  be  careful 
not  to  begin  cutting  till  the  stools  have  become  mature,  or  the 
third  or  fourth  year.  Likewise  observe,  both  in  old  and  new 
beds,  to  gather  all  the  produce  in  a regular,  successive  order, 
within  the  proper  limits  of  the  season.  As  the  rising  shoots 
project  two,  three,  four  or  five  inches,  at  most,  above  the 
ground,  while  the  top  bud  remains  close  and  plump,  they  are 
in  the  best  condition  for  gathering.  Cut  them  off  within  the 
ground,  with  a narrow,  sharp-pointed  knife,  or  small  saw, 
nine  inches  long;  thrusting  the  knife  or  saw  down  straight, 
close  to  each  shoot  separately,  cut  it  off  slantingly,  about 
three  inches  below  the  surface,  with  care  not  to  wouiid  the 
young  buds  advancing  below.  Observe  in  a new  planta- 
tion; in  the  first  yearns  gathering,  if  the  shoots  come  up  of 
irregular  sizes,  to  cut  only  some  of  the  larger  for  a fort- 
night, or  three  or  four  weeks,  and  then  permit  the  whole 
to  run  ; but  otherwise,  when  in  strong  production,  gather 
all  as  they  come,  two  or  three  times  a week,  or  as  required 
during  the  season,  till  the  21st  of  June  ; then,  at  furthest, 
terminate  the  cutting,  and  permit  the  after-shoots  to  run  up 
in  stalk  till  October.  If,  from  a particular  inducement,  you 
cut  later  than  the  21st  of  June,  be  careful  to  leave  two  or 
more  shoots  to  each  stool,  in  order  to  draw  nourishment  to 
it ; for  the  stools  left  without  growing  shoots  will  perish  ; 
and,  by  negligence  in  this  respect,  many  vacuities  or  unpro- 
ductive spots  are  left  in  beds.” 

Duration  of  the  plantation. says,  “A  plan- 
tation of  asparagus,  under  good  culture,  will  mostly  continue 
for  ten  or  twelve  years  to  afford  good  crops ; after  which 
the  stools  usually  decline  in  fertility,  and  the  shoots  in  qual- 
ity ; so  that,  to  provide  a permanent  annual  supply,  some 
fresh  beds  should  be  planted  a sufficient  time  beforehand, 
allowing  four  years  for  their  advancing  to  a productive 
state.” 

To  save  asparagus  seed. — “ Select  some  of  the  finest  and 
earliest  heads  as  they  make  their  appearance  in  the  spring ; 


ASPARAGUS. 


27 


tie  them  to  stakes  during  summer,  taking  care  not  to 
drive  the  stake  through  the  crown  of  tlie  plant.  In  autumn, 
when  the  berries  are  ripe,  wash  out  the  seeds,  if  for  the 
market,  or  to  be  sent  to  a distance ; but  for  home  sowing, 
keep  them  in  the  berry  till  the  time  of  sowing,  the  pulp 
being  a great  nourishment  to  the  seed,  which  ought  to  be 
kept  in  a dry  place  during  the  winter.” — Hort,  Trans. 

The  following  directions  for  cultivating  avSparagus  are 
from  the  second  volume  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  New  York 
Board  of  Agriculture.  They  were  furnished  by  Richard 
Treat,  the  oldest  gardener  at  the  Shaker  village  in  New 
Lebanon,  Columbia  county.  New  York  : — 

“ Beds  should  be  made  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  clear  from 
frost — the  first  part  of  April,  in  ordinary  seasons.  The 
grounci  must  be  well  worked  to  the  depth  of  a spade  blade, 
and  intimately  mixed  with  rotted  horse-manure.  The  seeds 
should  then  be  sowed  in  rows  or  drills,  twenty  inches  apart, 
and  one  inch  deep,  the  rows  crosswise  of  the  beds.  They 
should  be  raked  in  lengthwise  of  the  rows. 

Asparagus  will  be  large  enough  to  begin  to  cut  the 
third  spring  after  it  is  sowed.  It  may  be  cut  until  the  20th 
June  every  year  afterwards.  As  soon  as  the  cutting  season 
is  over,  hoe  it  over  lightly,  so  as  to  loosen  the  soil,  and  make 
the  surface  even.  Every  other  year,  spread  on  each  bed 
an  inch  layer  of  good  yard-manure  before  hoeing.  The 
tops  will  now  grow  to  a great  size,  and  mostly  seed  well. 
Early  in  the  spring,  cut  the  dry  tops  close  to  the  ground, 
lay  them  evenly  on  the  beds,  and  burn  them  there.  Then 
hoe  the  beds  over,  and  rake  them  again.  They  are  then 
prepared  for  a new  growth. 

‘‘Most  of  the  English  books  recommend  breaking  up 
old  asparagus  beds  once  in  a certain  number  of  years. 
Some  of  the  Shakers’  beds  have  been  cut  twenty-five  years, 
and,  under  that  course  of  treatment,  are  as  good  as  they 
ever  were.” 

Armstrong,  in  the  treatise  quoted  above,  says,  “ It  has  been 
lately  asserted,  and  with  sufficient  confidence,  that  a pickle 
of  salt  and  water,  of  the  ordinary  strength  for  preserving 
meat,  may  be  very  usefully  applied  to  asparagus  beds  in  the 
spring.  The  effects  ascribed  to  it  are,  its  stimulating  pow- 
er over  the  crop,  and  its  tendency  to  destroy  the  seeds  of 
weeds,  and  of  insects  lying  near  the  surface.  Experiments 


28 


BALM. 


on  this  subject  should  be  multiplied,  and  with  pickles  dif- 
fering in  strength  and  quality.”  In  the  last  edition  of 
Deane^s  New  England  Farmer^  it  is  observed,  “ that  to  a 
bed  fifty  feet  by  six,  a bushel  of  salt  may  be  applied,  with 
good  effect,  before  the  plants  start  in  the  spring.” 

Use, — “ The  esculent  part  is  the  early  shoots  or  buds,  when 
three  or  four  inches  high,  and  partially  emerged  from  the 
ground  in  May  or  June.  They  are  in  great  esteem  in  Britain, 
and  on  the  continent ; and  this  plant  has,  in  consequence, 
been  cultivated  for  an  unknown  period.  In  Paris,  it  i§  much 
resorted  to  by  the  sedentary  operative  classes,  when  they 
are  troubled  with  symptoms  of  gravel  or  stone.” — Loudon, 

Forcing  asparagus  in  hot  beds, — The  first  step  in  this  pro- 
cess is  to  procure  a supply  of  three  year  old  plants,  for  none 
else  are  fit  for  the  purpose.  Then  form  a hot  bed,  as  di- 
rected under  the  article  Hot-bed,  in  the  alphabetical  ar- 
rangement of  this  work.  In  this  set  the  plants,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  two  inches.  Armstrong  observes,  that  the  mode 
of  taking  the  plants  from  hot  beds  differs  from  that  used 
for  plants  raised  in  the  natural  way.  If  you  employ  a knife, 
fou  cannot  fail  to  destroy  many  young  plants,  (on  account 
of  the  closeness  with  which  they  stand  to  each  other,)  but 
^he  mode  in  which  you  do  least  mischief,  is,  to  thrust  your 
finger  down  alongside  of  the  bud,  and  break  it  off  at  the 
700t.” 

BALM.— AfcZma  officinalis, — “ The  balm  is  a hardy  pe- 
rennial, V ith  square  stems,  which  rise  two  feet  high  or  more, 
furnished  with  large  ovate  leaves,  growing  by  pairs  at  each 
joint.  It  is  a native  of  Switzerland  and  the  south  of 
France,  produces  flowers  of  a purplish  colour  from  June  to 
October.”  There  is  a variety  with  hairy  leaves. 

Propagation, — It  is  readily  propagated  by  parting  the 
roots,  preserving  two  or  three  buds  to  each  piece,  or  by 
slips,  either  in  autumn  or  spring.” — Loudon, 

Culture, — “ Plant  the  slips  or  sets  in  any  bed  of  common 
earth,  by  dibble  or  trowel,  and  from  eight  inches  to  a foot 
apart,  giving  water,  if  dry  weather.  Those  of  the  spring 
planting  will  soon  grow  freely  for  use  the  same  year ; and 
afterwards  will  increase  by  the  root  into  large  bunches  of 
several  years’  continuance,  furnishing  annual  supplies  from 
March  to  September.” — Loudon. 

Dried  Balm. — Gather  when  coming  into  flower,  and 


BARLEY. 


29 


when  the  leaves  are  entirely  free  from  dew  or  moisture ; 
then  dry  rapidly  in  the  shade,  or  better  in  an  oven  ; and 
when  cool  press  the  herbage  into  packages,  and  wrap  them 
up  ill  white  paper  till  wanted  for  use.  Keep  the  packages 
dry,  and  in  a close  drawer.” — Loudon* 

Use. — ‘‘Formerly  the  balm  was  held  in  very  high  esti- 
mation : Paracelsus  supposed  it  to  possess  virtues,  by  which 
human  life  could  be  prolonged  beyond  the  usual  period.  In 
modern  times,  however,  the  properties  of  this  agreeable 
plant  are  better  understood  : it  yields,  by  distillation,  a 
small  proportion  of  an  essential  oil,  ^f  a yellowish  colour, 
and  a very  grateful  smell.  A few  drops  of  this  oil,  diluted 
in  a glass  of  simple  water,  or  strong  infusions  of  the  young 
shoots,  drank  as  tea,  and  continued  for  several  weeks  or 
months,  have  proved  of  service  to  nervous  and  hypochondri- 
acal patients,  of  a lax  and  debilitated  habit.  Either  of  these 
liquid  preparations,  when  slightly  acidulated  with  lemon 
juice,  acquire  a fine  reddish  colour,  and  may  be  taken  with 
advantage  in  dry,  parching  fevers,  as  well  as  in  cases  of  dis- 
tressing flatulency,  attended  with  eructations,  where  the 
first  passages  have  previously  been  opened.” — Doin.  Ency* 
vol.  i.  p.  127. 

BARLEY. — Hordeum. — The  following  remarks  on  the 
cultivation  of  this  grain  are  extracted  from  an  article  written 
by  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  published  in  the  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  v. 
p.  290 

“ The  soil  for  barley  should  be  such  as  will  grow  good 
turnips,  or  other  green  crops,  including  clovers,  and  which 
embrace  the  varieties  of  loams  and  sands  that  are  not  wet, 
or  very  dry  and  poor.  Indeed,  I have  taken  my  crops,  and 
they  have  been  pretty  good,  from  my  lightest  turnip  soils. 
Barley  cannot  be  cultivated  to  advantage  upon  stiff,  heavy, 
and  wet  grounds,  or  on  such  as  are  of  a cold  and  tenacious 
quality.  This  crop  occupies  the  ground  but  about  three 
months ; and  it  is  only  in  a dry,  light,  mellow  soil,  that  its 
roots  can  extend  with  sufficient  facility,  and  supply  the  food 
necessary  to  bring  the  grain  to  rapid  and  perfect  maturity. 

“ Previous  crop. — Crops  that  precede  this  grain  should 
be  such  as  leave  the  ground  mellow,  and  free  from  weeds; 
and  for  this  reason  hoed  crops  are  to  be  preferred,  such  as 
turnips,  potatoes,  peas,  beans,  &c.  Small  grains  should 
not  precede  it : they  impoverish  the  soil,  leave  it  foul,  and, 

3# 


30 


BARLEY. 


besidas,  it  is  contravening  one  of  the  most  salutary  maxims 
of  husbandry,  to  grow  two  dry  crops  in  succession.  It  may 
follow  clover ; but  if  the  soil  is  heavy,  the  ley  should  be 
ploughed  in  autumn.  Barley  is  successfully  sown  upon  the 
fallows  in  England,  (not  summer,  but  autumn  fallows,)  and 
is  sown  sometimes  after  wheat ; but  in  the  latter  case  tur- 
nips are  pulled,  and  previously  fed  upon  the  stubble — a prac- 
tice which  I think  is  not  likely  \o  obtain  here.  I have 
generally  sown  barley  after  ruta  baga  or  potatoes,  these 
crops  having  received  a good  dressing  of  long,  yard  or  stable- 
manure. 

“ Manure  should  not  be  applied  to  the  barley,  but  to  the 
preceding  crop.  The  short  period  that  this  grain  occupies 
the  ground  does  not  afford  time  for  the  manure  to  decom- 
pose, and  yield  its  food  to  the  plants  ; and,  if  applied  in  ex- 
cess, it  causes  a too  rank  vegetation,  and  the  straw  lodges 
before  the  grain  is  matured.  Where  a fallow  or  clover  ley 
is  employed,  and  ploughed  in  autumn,  dung  may  be  pre- 
viously applied  and  ploughed  under. 

Preparation  of  the  ground, — Where  barley  follows  a 
root  or  hoed  crop,  one  ploughing  will  generally  suffice  : 
but  in  all  cases  a complete  pulverization  of  the  soil  is  neces- 
sary ; and  to  effect  this  a roller  is  often  of  material  benefit. 
If  sown  upon  grass  leys,  ploughed  in  autumn,  the  spring 
ploughing  should  be  shallow,  so  as  to  leave  the  sod  re- 
versed. But  the  preferable  way  may  be  to  harrow  the  fal- 
low, plough  in  the  seed,  with  a light  furrow,  and  smooth 
off  with  the  harrow. 

The  seed^  and  sowing, — Loudon  enumerates  six  species 
and  sub-species  of  the  barley.  The  kinds  uniformly  culti- 
vated here  are  the  two,  four,  and  six  rowed  spring,  (horde-' 
um  vulgare^  and  h,  distichon,)  Thin-skinned,  pale,  plump 
seed  should  be  selected.  I sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  dry  in  spring.  The  young  grain  is  not  hurt  by 
the  ordinary  frosts  of  the  latter  part  of  April  and  May.  I 
sow  from  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  according  to  the  rich- 
ness of  the  soil  and  the  forwardness  of  the  season  ; the 
poorest  ground  and  the  latest  sowing  requiring  the  most 
seed.  In  England  the  common  quantity  of  seed  is  from 
eight  to  sixteen  pecks.  Our  climate  being  much  warmer 
than  that  of  Great  Britain,  barley  and  other  grains  till  better 
with  us,  and  consequently  we  require  less  seed.  We  uni- 


BARLEY. 


31 


formly  sow  broad-cast,  generally  on  the  fresh  furrow,  and 
harrow  in  both  ways  ; and  those  who  have  a roller  use  it 
in  the  finishing  operation.  It  gives  a smooth  surface,  breaks 
down  the  lumps,  brings  the  earth  in  contact  with  the  seed, 
and  if  grass  seeds  have  been  sown,  its  use  is  doubly  benefi- 
cial. I steep  my  seed  twenty-four  hours  in  a weak  solution  of 
nitre,  the  crude  kind  of  which  costs  me  only  eight  cents  per 
pound  by  the  quantity.  From  the  analysis  and  observa- 
tions of  Grisenthwaite,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  this 
salt  is  peculiarly  beneficial  to  the  barley  crop,  the  grain 
yielding  it  on  analysis.  I have  made  no  comparative  ex- 
periments, but  I think  this  steep  serviceable.  I have  ap- 
plied to  this  grain,  as  a top  dressing,  with  singular  success, 
the  powdered  dung  of  pigeons  and  dunghill  fowls,  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  the  acre. 

‘‘  The  crop  admits  of  no  after-culture  when  sown  broad- 
cast. Yet  the  application  of  the  roller,  when  the  plants  are 
two  or  three  inches  high,  is  no  doubt  salutary,  especially  if 
there  has  been  no  considerable  rains.  Rolling  gives  a salu- 
tary compression  to  the  soil,  which  in  the  spring  is  apt  to 
be  loose  and  porous,  and  full  of  cracks,  by  the  alternation 
of  freezing  and  thawing,  or  of  wet  and  dry  weather ; it  de- 
stroys many  insects ; and,  above  all,  it  partially  buries  the 
crowns  of  the^  plants,  and  induces  a multiplication  of  seed 
stalks.  I can  recommend  the  practice  from  experience. — 
When  grass  seeds  are  sown  with  barley,  the  luxuriance  of 
che  young  grass  sometimes  chokes  the  grain,  robs  it  of  nu- 
triment, and  sensibly  diminishes  the  product.  To  obviate 
this  evil,  it  has  been  recommended  to  sow  the  grass  seeds 
d,fter  the  barley  has  come  up,  and  to  cover  them  with  a 
light  harrow  and  the  roller  ; and  it  is  said,  and  I think  with 
truth,  that  this  operation  will  not  materially  injure  the  grain. 
In  dry  seasons,  the  crop  is  sometimes  attacked  by  worms, 
while  young.  In  this  case  the  roller  should  be  applied,  and 
sufficient  weight  added,  to  require  the  draught  of  two  or 
three  cattle. 

Time  and  method  of  harvesting, — When  the  soil  is  rich, 
and  the  season  propitious,  this  grain  is  very  liable  to  lodge. 
If  this  happens  after  it  has  blossomed,  no  material  injury  is 
sustained  in  the  product.  If  before,  the  crop  i^  greatly  di- 
minished. This  shows  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 
making  the  soil  too  rich,  and  of  applying  fresh  manure. 


32 


BARLEY. 


Barley  is  known  to  be  ripe  by  tlie  disappearance  of  the 
reddish  cast  on  the  ear,  or  what  the  English  farmers  term 
red  roan;  by  the  ears  beginning  to  droop,  and  bend  them- 
selves round  against  the  stems ; and  by  the  stalks  becoming 
brittle,  and  of  a yellowish  colour.  This  is  the  particular 
period  for  cutting,  as,  if  suffered  to  stand  longer,  the  heads 
break  off,  and  the  grain  wastes,  with  the  slightest  touch. 
And  it  may  be  cut  with  the  cradle,  sickle  or  sithe,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  If  it  stands  straight,  and  is  not  too 
heavy,  the  cradle  is  to  be  preferred ; if  heavy,  or  lodged, 
the  sickle  or  sithe.  But,  as  the  grain  is  yet  soft,  and  the 
straw  contains  much  moisture,  when  it  ought  to  be  cut,  it 
should  be  suffered  to  become  well  dried  in  the  swath  be- 
fore it  is  bound  in  sheaves,  or  carried  to  the  barn  or  stack. 
If  cut  with  the  cradle  or  sickle,  it  is  bound  in  sheaves ; but 
the  more  common  practice  is  to  cut  the  crop  with  the  sithe, 
rake  the  ground,  and  load  it  with  the  barley  fork. 

‘‘  Barley  improves  for  malting  by  lying  till  October  before 
it  is  threshed  ; though  it  is  often  threshed  immediately  from 
the  field.  The  great  difficulty  in  preparing  it  for  market  is 
to  rid  it  of  the  awns.  This  may  be  done  with  flails,  after 
it  has  passed  once  through  the  fanning  mill.  And,  where 
it  is  in  great  quantities,  it  may  be  spread  from  four  to  six 
inches  upon  the  barn  floor,  and  trodden  with  horses. 

Produce  and  profits, — The  average  product  in  England 
is  stated  by  Donaldson  at  thirty-two  bushels  per  acre.  The 
product  in  New  York  varies  from  fifteen  to  seventy  bushels, 
according  to  season  and  soil  ; and  I think  the  average  is 
somewhat  short  of  that  of  Great  Britain.  Compared  with 
wheat,  its  product  is  as  two  or  two  and  a half  to  one  ; com- 
pared with  oats,  about  equal,  provided  the  soil  is  adapted 
to  this  grain.  It  is,  however,  to  be  remembered,  that  neither 
wheat  nor  oats  are  adapted  to  a barley  soil ; the  first  requir- 
ing a more  stiff  and  tenacious,  and  the  latter  a more  cold 
and  moist  location.  The  average  price  of  barley  is  at  least 
two  thirds  that  of  wheat : supposing  wheat,  then,  to  be  $ 1 12 
the  bushel,  and  the  product  15  bushels  per  acre,  and  barley 
to  be  75  cents,  and  the  product  of  an  acre  30  bushels,  and 
the  expense  of  cultivation  equal,  the  profits  of  the  barley 
will  be  nearly  as  three  to  two  compared  to  wheat.  Barley, 
besides,  is  a less  precarious  crop,  is  subject  to  fewer  dis- 


BEAN. 


33 


eases,  and  has  fewer  insect  enemies  to  encounter  than 
wheat.” 

A correspondent  of  the  Bath  Agricultural  Society  writes — 
“ The  last  spring  being  remarkably  dry,  I soaked  my  seed 
barley  in  the  black  water,  taken  from  a resei*voir,  which 
constantly  receives  the  draining  of  my  dung  heap  and  sta- 
bles. As  the  light  grains  floated  on  the  top,  I skimmed  them 
off,  and  let  the  rest  stand  24  hours.  On  taking  it  from  the 
water,  I mixed  the  grain  with  a sufficient  quantity  of  sifted 
wood  ashes,  to  make  it  spread  regularly,  and  sowed  three 
fields  with  it.  The  produce  was  sixty  bushels  per  acre. 
I sowed  some  other  fields  with  the  same  seed  dry ; but  the 
crop,  like  those  of  my  neighbours,  was  very  poor,  not  more 
than  twenty  bushels  per  acre,  and  much  mixed  with  green 
corn  and  weeds  when  harvested.  I also  sowed  some  of 
my  seed  dry  on  one  ridge  in  each  of  my  former  fields,  but 
the  produce  was  very  poor  in  comparison  of  the  other  parts 
of  the  field.” 

BEAN. — Vicia  faba. — There  are  two  distinct  species  of 
the  bean,  which  are  often  confounded  by  writers  on  agricul- 
tural subjects,  to  wity  vicia  fahaj  garden  bean,or  horse  bean, 
and  phaseolus  vulgarisy  or  kidney  bean.  The  want  of  distin- 
guishing between  these  two  different  genera  or  sorts  of 
plants,  may  lead  to  erroneous  practices,  and  consequent 
detriment  to  the  cultivator. 

The  vicia  faha^  or  garden  bean,  (often  called  English 
beauy)  is  an  annual  plant,  rising  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
with  a thick,  angular  stem,  the  leaves  divided,  and  without 
tendrils  ; the  flowers  white,  with  a black  spot  in  the  middle 
of  the  wing ; seed-pods  thick,  long,  woolly  within,  and  en- 
closing the  large  ovate  flatted  seeds,  for  the  sake  of  which 
the  plant  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  following  varieties 
are  advertised  for  sale  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue,  viz. 

English  dwarfs,  I Green  nonpareil, 

Early  mazagan,  j Broad  Windsor. 

Sword  long  pod,  | 

These  varieties  should  be  planted  as  early  as  practica- 
ble in  April.” 

It  is  said  that  this  kind  of  bean  is  propagated  to  the  best 
advantage  in  a stiff,  moist  loam,  with  a considerable  propoi^ 
tion  of  clay.  The  following  are  Mr.  Loudon’s  directions 
for  its  culture  • — 


34 


BEAN. 


Quantity  of  seeds, — F or  early  crops,  one  pint  of  seed  will 
be  requisite  for  every  eighty  feet  of  row ; for  main  crops, 
two  quarts  for  every  240  feet  of  row ; and  for  late  crops, 
nearly  the  same  as  the  early. 

Method  of  sowing. — “ Plant  all  the  sorts  in  rows,  two  feet 
and  a half  apart,  for  the  smaller  or  very  early,  or  very  late 
kinds;  and  three  feet  for  the  larger;  the  smaller  beans  two 
inches  deep,  and  three  inches  distant  in  the  row ; the  larger 
three  inches  deep,  and  four  inches  distant  in  the  row.” 

Transjdanting. — Speedily  constantly  transplants  his  early 
bean  crops,  and  considers  that  this  plant  may  be  as  easily 
transplanted  as  cabbage,  or  any  other  vegetable.  It  is  a prac- 
tice with  him  to  plant  beans,  rdternately  with  potatoes,  in 
the  same  row  ; the  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  the  potatoes 
eighteen  inches  apart  in  the  row,  so  that  the  beans  are  nine 
inches  from  the  potatoes.  The  beans  are  transplanted,  by 
which  means  they  have  the  start  and  advantage  of  the  po- 
tatoes and  weeds,  and,  as  they  come  in  early,  may  be  gath- 
ered before  they  can  possibly  incommode  or  injure  the 
potatoes. 

Manual  process. — The  work  of  sowing  is  most  generally 
effected  by  a dibble,  having  a thick,  blunt  end,  to  make  a 
wide  aperture  for  each  bean,  to  admit  it  clear  to  the  bottom, 
without  any  narrow,  hollow  parts  below : strike  the  earth 
fully  and  regularly  into  the  holes  over  the  inserted  beans. 
Or  the  planting  may  be  performed,  occasionally,  in  drills 
drawn  with  a hoe  the  proper  depth  and  distance  as  above ; 
place  the  beans  at  intervals  along  the  bottom  of  each  drill, 
and  earth  them  over  evenly ; which  method,  though  suitable 
to  any  kinds,  may  be  more  particularly  adopted  in  sowing 
the  early  and  other  small  sorts. 

Soaking  seed  in  summer. — In  planting  late  crops  in  June 
or  July,  if  the  weather  be  dry,  it  is  eligible  to  give  the  beanjs 
a previous  soaking  for  several  hours  in  soft  water;  or,  if 
they  are  to  be  sown  in  drills,  \vater  the  drills  beforehand  ; 
then  directly  put  in  the  beans,  and  earth  them  in  while  the 
ground  remains  moist. 

Subsequent  culture, — “ As  the  plants  come  up,  and  ad- 
vance from  four  to  six  inches  high,  hoe  up  some  earth  to  the 
stems  on  both  sides  of  each  row,  cutting  down  all  weeds. 
Repeat  the  hoeing  as  future  weeds  arise,  both  to  keep  the 
ground  about  the  plants  clean,  and  to  loosen  the  earth  to 


BKAN. 


35 


encourage  their  growth.  In  earthing  up,  great  care  must 
be  taken  that  the  carlli  does  not  fall  on  the  centre  of  the 
plant,  so  as  to  bury  it;  for  this  occasions  it  to  rot  or  fail. 
After  earthing  up,  stir  between  the  rows  with  a three- 
pronged fork.  As  the  different  crops  come  into  full  blos- 
som, pinch  or  cut  off  the  tops,  in  order  to  promote  their 
fruiting  sooner  in  a more  plentiful  production  of  well-filled 
pods.’’ — Abercromhie. 

Nichol  says,  ‘‘  Topping  is  unnecessary  for  any  but  the 
early  crops ; being  practised  to  render  them  more  ear- 
ly.” Mr.  Armstrong  is  of  opinion,  that  “ of  this  practice, 
and  of  the  theory  on  which  it  is  founded,  we  may  be  per- 
mitted to  doubt,  because  it  does  not  appear  to  follow  that, 
when  the  gro^vth  of  a plant  is  checked  or  suspended  in  one 
direction,  it  will  not  exert  itself  in  another  as  injuriously  to 
the  crop  as  any  increased  length  of  stem  would  have  done. 
Every  day’s  experience  shows,  that,  if  we  pollard  an  apple- 
tree,  we  indeed  stop  its  growth  upward;  but  that,  instead  ot 
sending  its  surplus  juices  to  the  support  and  enlargement  of 
the  fruit,  (as  this  practice  supposes,)  it  hastens  to  throw 
out  lateral  stems  or  suckers,  which  give  no  fruit  whatever. 
Our  creed,  therefore,  is,  that,  in  the  vegetable  economy, 
certain  juices  go  to  the  production  of  the  stem,  and  certain 
others,  more  elaborated,  and  of  a different  quality,  to  that  of 
flowers  and  fruits,  and  that,  whether  desirable  or  not,  the 
art  of  giving  to  either  a destination  different  from  what  na*' 
ture  intended,  is  yet  to  be  discovered.” 

Gathering, — For  table  use,  gather  only  such  as  are  ten- 
der, the  seeds  decreasing  in  delicacy  after  they  obtain  about 
half  the  size  which  they  should  possess  at  maturity.  When 
they  become  black-eyed,  they  are  tough  and  strong  tasted, 
and  much  inferior. 

To  save  seed. — Either  plant  some  of  the  approved  sorts 
early  in  the  spring,  wholly  for  that  purpose,  or  leave  rows 
of  the  different  crops  ungathered,  in  preference  to  the  glean- 
ings of  gathered  crops.  The  pods  will  ripen  in  August, 
becoming  brown  and  dry,  and  the  beans  dry  and  hard  : 
then,  pulling  up  the  stalks,  place  them  in  the  sun  to  harden 
the  seed  thoroughly,  after  which  thresh  out  each  sort  sepa- 
rately.”— Abercrombie. 

Use. — Mr.  Cobbett  says,  “ In  England  there  are  some 
sorts  of  this  bean  used  for  horses  and  hogs  ; but  there  are 


38 


BEAN. 


several  sorts  used  as  human  food.  It  is  at  best  a coarse  and 
not  very  wholesome  vegetable,  yet  some  people  like  it  It 
is  very  much  eaten  by  the  country  people,  in  England,  with 
their  bacon,  along  with  which  it  is  boiled.”  Bean  flour,  as 
Dr.  Darwin  observed,  is  probably  more  nutritive  than  that 
of  oats,  which  appears  by  its  effect  in  fattening  hogs ; and, 
from  the  relative  prices  of  these  articles,  he  was  of  opinion, 
that  peas  and  beans,  in  general,  supply  a cheaper  provender 
for  horses  and  other  animals.  But  as  the  flour  of  beans 
and  peas  is  more  oily  than  that  of  oats,  it  must  be  more 
difficult  of  digestion.  Hence,  when  a horse  has  been  fed 
with  pulse,  he  will  be  less  active  for  an  hour  or  two  after- 
wards, than  if  he  had  eaten  oats.  It  will,  therefore,  be 
advisable  to  mix  pollard  or  straw,  finely  cut,  with  peas  and 
beans,  before  they  are  given  to  cattle. 

BEAN,  KIDNEY. — Phaseolus  vulgaris, — This  plant 
and  its  uses  are  too  well  known  to  require  any  description. 
The  sorts  mentioned  in  Russell’s  Catalogue,  are  Kidney 
dwarfs^  or  string  : — early  yellow  cranberry ; early  Mohawk, 
(which  will  bear  a smart  frost  without  injury;)  early  yel- 
low six  weeks  ; early  Canadian  dwarf ; early  dwarf  cluster; 
early  dun  coloured,  or  Quaker  ; early  China  dwarf;  large 
white  kidney  dwarf ; white  cranberry  dwarf;  red  cranberry 
dwarf ; Warrington,  or  marrow ; refugee,  or  thousand  to  one ; 
Rob  Roy;  white  cutlass  bean  of  Carolina.  Pole  or  running 
beans: — large  white  Lima;  saba  or  Carolina;  scarlet  run- 
ners ; white  Dutch  runners ; Dutch  case-knife,  or  princess ; 
red  cranberry ; white  cranberry ; ( the  three  last  mentioned 
string  beans ;)  asparagus,  or  yard  long,  dolichos  sesquipedalis. 

The  following  directions  for  the  culture  of  the  bean  in 
gardens  are  from  McMahon  : “ Towards  the  latter  end  of 
April,  [or  the  fore  part  of  May  in  New  England,]  you  may 
plant  a first  crop  of  kidney-beans  in  the  open  ground.  Select 
a warm,  dry,  and  favourably  situated  spot,  and,  having  dug 
and  manured  it  properly,  draw  drills  an  inch  deep,  and  two 
feet  or  thirty  inches  asunder ; drop  the  beans  therein,  two 
inches  apart,  and  draw  the  earth  equally  over  them ; do  not 
cover  them  more  than  an  inch  deep  ; for  at  this  early  time 
they  are  liable  to  rot,  if  cold  or  wet  ensue.  The  kinds 
proper  to  be  sown  now  are,  the  early  cream-coloured, 
speckled,  yellow  and  white  dwarfs.” 

Loudon  gives  the  following  directions  for  the  culture  of 


BEAN. 


37 


runnersy  or  pole-heanSy  as  they  are  commonly  called  in  this 
country  : — The  runner  kidney  beans  may  be  sown  in  a 
small  portion  towards  the  end  of  April,  [about  the  middle  of 
May  in  New  England,]  if  tolerably  warm,  dry  weather ; but 
as  these  beans  are  rather  more  tender  than  the  dwarf  sorts, 
more  liable  to  rot  in  the  ground  by  wet  and  cold,  especially 
the  scarlets,  the  beginning  or  middle  of  May  [first  of 
June  in  New  England]  will  be  time  enough  to  sow  a con- 
siderable crop;  and  you  may  sow  a full  crop  about  the 
beginning  of  June.  Allot  principally  the  scarlet  and  large 
white  runners.  Some  Dutch  runners  are  very  eligible  as  a 
secondary  crop.  The  first  crops  should  have  the  assistance 
of  a south  w^all.  Intermediate  crops  may  be  sown  in  any 
open  compartment,  or  against  any  fence  not  looking  north. 
The  latest  sown  will  continue  bearing  longer  under  a good 
aspect  and  shelter.  In  sowing,  draw  drills  about  an  inch 
and  a half,  or  not  more  than  two  inches  deep.  Let  paral- 
lel rows  be  at  least  four  feet  asunder,  to  admit  in  the  inter- 
vals tall  sticks  or  poles  for  the  plants  to  climb  on.  Place 
the  beans  in  the  drills  four  inches  apart,  and  earth  them  in 
evenly  the  depth  of  the  drills.  A row  contiguous  to  a fence 
or  building  may  ascend  upon  lines.  Some  may  be  sown 
in  a single  row  along  a border,  or  on  each  side  of  a walk, 
and  have  the  support  of  a slight  trellis  of  laths  and  lines ; or 
they  might  be  arched  over  with  similar  materials  to  form  a 
shady  walk  or  bower.  In  a cold,  wet  season,  or  when  requi- 
site to  have  a few  plants  more  forward  than  the  general  crop, 
some  scarlets  may  be  sown  in  April,  either  in  a slight  hot- 
bed, or  in  pots,  under  frames  of  hand-glasses,  to  raise  and 
forward  the  plants,  till  two  or  three  inches  high : then,  at 
the  end  of  May,  transplant  them  into  the  open  garden.  As 
the  plants  come  up,  and  advance  from  three  to  six  inches 
in  growth,  hoe  some  earth  to  the  stems,  cutting  down  all 
weeds.  When  they  begin  to  send  forth  runners,  place 
suitable  supports  to  each  row  ; and  conduct  the  tendrils  to 
the  sticks  or  lines,  turning  them  in  a contrary  direction  to 
the  sun.  The  ascending  plants  will  soon  come  into  flower, 
podding  at  the  joints,  in  long  succession.  They  are  so  pro- 
lific, that  the  returns  from  three  sowings,  in  May,  June  and 
July,  will  last  from  July  till  October. 

Talcing  the  crop. — Gather  the  pods,  both  from  dwarfs  and 
runners,  while  they  are  young,  fleshy,  brittle  and  tender, 
4 


ns 


for  then  they  are  in  the  highest  perfection  for  the  tabic  J 
and  the  plants  will  bear  more  fiilly^  and  last  longer  in  fruit, 
under  a course  of  clean  gathering,  not  leaving  any  super- 
abundant pods  to  gjrow  old. 

To  save  seed. — Either  sow  a portion  for  that  object,  or 
leave  rows  wholly  ungatbered,  of  the  main  crop^or  preserve 
a sufficiency  of  good  pods  promiscuously^  The  beans  saved 
should  be  the  first  fruits  of  a crop,  sown  at  a period  which 
throws  the  entire  course  of  growth  into  the  finest  part  of 
summer.  Let  them  hang  on  the  stalks  till  they  ripen  fully,^ 
in  August  and  September ; then  let  the  haulm  be  pulled  up 
and  placed  in  the  sun,  to  dry  and  harden  the  seed,  which 
should  be  afterwards  cleared  out  of  the  husks,  bagged  up, 
and  housed. 

The  pea,  English  bean,  and  kidney  bean,  are  liable  to 
the  attacks  of  various  insects,  especially  the  opAides',  [plant 
lice,]  in  dry  seasons.  When  early  crops  are  newly  sown, 
or  planted,  mice  will  burrow  for  and  eat  the  seed,  and  whei> 
it  begins  to  penetrate  the  soil,  it  is  attacked  by  snails,  slugs, 
the  cut  worm,  &c.  The  usual  means  of  guarding  against 
the  ravages  of  in&ects  must,  therefore,  be  resorted  to  by 
the  gardener. 

As  regards  the  field  culture  of  the  bean,  we  would  ob- 
serve, that  the  white  kind,  which  is  most  generally  approved 
of  in  New  England,  will  produce  pretty  good  crops,  on 
poor,  sandy,  or  gravelly  soils  ; but,  when  planted  on  such 
ground,  it  is  good  husbandry  to  wet  and  roll  them  in  plas- 
ter before  planting.  They  may  be  planted  in  hills,  or  drills, 
the  rows  two  and  a half  or  three  feet  apart,  according  to 
the  strength  of  the  soil,  and  cultivated  like  other  hoed 
crops.  They  may  be  planted  the  latter  end  of  May,  or 
beginning  of  June,  or  about  the  time  of  planting  Indian 
com.  If  planted  in  hills,  they  may  be  placed  from  fourteen 
to  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  and  the  rows  the 
distance  before  mentioned.  Five  beans  are  quite  enough 
to  remain  in  a hill.  Hogs’  dung,  mixed  with  ashes,  is  said 
to  be  the  best  manure  for  them  ; and  it  is  said  to  be  very 
injurious  to  beans  to  hoe  them  while  the  dew  is  on,  or  in 
wet  weather. 

Judge  Duel,  of  Albany,  has  given  the  following  notices 
of  some  experiments,  in  the  field  culture  of  this  vegetable  : 

. — Beans  may  be  cultivated  in  drills  or  in  hills.  They  are 


BEAN. 


39 


Cl  valuable  crop ; and,  with  good  care,  are  as  profitable 
as  a wheat  crop.  They  leave  the  soil  in  good  tilth.  The 
China  bean,  with  a red  eye,  is  to  be  preferred.  They  ripen 
early,  and  are  very  productive.  I cultivated  beans  the  last 
year  in  three  dilferent  ways,  viz.  in  hills,  in  drills,  and 
sowed  broad-cast  I need  not  describe  the  first,  which  is  a 
well  known  process.  I had  an  acre  in  drills,  which  was 
the  best  crop  I ever  saw.  My  management  was  this  : — On 
an  acre  of  light  ground,  where  the  clover  had  been  frozen 
out  the  preceding  winter,  I spread  eight  loads  of  long  ma- 
nure, and  immediately  ploughed  and  harrowed  the  ground. 
Drills  or  furrows  v/ere  then  made  with  a light  plough,  at 
the  distance  of  two  and  a half  feet,  and  the  beans  thrown 
along  the  furrows  about  the  25th  of  May,  by  the  hand,  at 
the  rate  of  at  least  a bushel  on  the  acre.  I then  gauged  a 
double  mould-board  plough,  which  was  passed  once  be- 
tween the  rows,  and  was  followed  by  a light  one  horse 
roller,  which  flattened  the  ridges.  The  crop  was  twice 
cleaned  of  weeds,  by  the  hoe,  but  not  earthed.  The  pro- 
duct was  more  than  forty-eight  bushels,  by  actual  measure- 
ment. The  beans  brought  me  one  dollar  the  bushel  last 
fall.  The  third  experiment  was  likewise  upon  a piece  of 
ground  where  the  clover  had  been  killed.  It  was  ploughed 
about  the  first  of  June,  the  seed  sown  like  peas,  upon  the 
first  furrow,  and  harrowed  in.  The  drought  kept  them 
back ; but  about  65  rods  of  ground,  on  which  the  experiment 
was  made,  gave  a product  of  twelve  and  a half  bushels. 
The  crop  was  too  ripe  when  it  was  harvested,  and  as  it  was 
cut  with  a sithe,  I estimated  that  about  two  and  a half 
bushels  were  left  upon  the  ground.  No  labour  was  be- 
stowed upon  them  from  the  time  they  were  sown  till  they 
were  harvested.” 

Forwarding  an  early  crop. — The  kidney  bean  is  often  par- 
tially forced,  in  hot-houses  or  frames,  with  a view  to  the 
forwarding  of  its  produce  in  the  open  garden.  Mr.  Arm- 
strong says,  In  the  neighbourhood  of  cities,  the  dwarf 
varieties  are  often  cultivated  in  hot-beds,  but  the  product 
is  of  a very  inferior  kind;  for,  of  the  whole  catalogue  of 
vegetables,  none  is  more  apt  to  take  a disagreeable  flavour 
from  hot  and  fermenting  dung  (which  is  the  basis  of  these 
beds)  than  the  bean.”  It  is  probable,  however,  that  beans 
might  be  forced  to  advantage,  in  hot-beds,  composed  of  oak 


40 


BEET. 


leaves,  tanner’s  bark,  &c.  without  deriving  therefrom  the 
disagreeable  flavour  complained  of. 

BEET. — Beta, — Among  the  more  common  varieties  of 
this  valuable  vegetable  are, 

French  sugar,  or  amber  beet,  I Early  blood  turnip-rooted. 

Mangel  wurtzel,  | Early  dwarf  blood, 

Green — for  stews  or  soups,  I Early  white  scarcity, 

Yellow  turnip-rooted,  | Long  blood  red. 


Sown  from  April  to  June.  The  early  turnip  blood  beet 
is  the  earliest,  and  of  excellent  quality  for  summer  use  ; the 
tops  being  good  for  boiling  as  greens.  Mr.  Loudon’s  direc- 
tions for  the  general  culture  of  the  beet  are  as  follow  : — 
Seed  and  soil, — The  beet  is  always  raised  from  seed, 
and  for  a bed  four  feet  and  a half  by  twelve  feet,  one  ounce 

requisite.  The  soil  in  which  it  naturally  delights  is  a 
deep,  rich  sand,  dry  and  light,  rather  than  moist.  Sowing  in 
«eed  beds,  and  transplanting,  has  been  tried ; but,  though  it 
may  answer  for  the  spinage  or  pot-herb  beets,  [white,  and 
its  varieties,]  it  will  not  answer  where  the  object  is  a large, 
clean  root. 

“ Sowing, — The  beet  is  sown  annually  the  last  week  of 
March,  or  beginning  of  April,  [in  the  northern  United  States, 
the  main  crop  should  be  delayed  till  the  middle  of  May.] 
The  ground  on  which  it  is  sown  should  have  been  previ- 
ously enriched  by  mellow  compost  and  sea  sand ; but  rank 
dung  is  not  to  be  laid  in,  as  it  is  apt  to  induce  canker.  For 
the  long-rooted  kind,  trench  to  the  depth  of  eighteen  inches. 
Sow  either  broad-cast  on  the  rough  surface,  and  rake  well 
into  the  earth ; or,  as  the  seed  is  large,  sow  in  drills  an  inch 
or  two  deep  and  a foot  asunder ; or  dot  it  in  with  a thick, 
blunt-ended  dibble  in  rows  that  distance,  making  holes  ten 
or  twelve  inches  apart,  about  an  inch  and  a half  deep ; drop 
two  or  three  seeds  in  each  hole,  but  with  the  intention  to 
leave  only  one  beet  plant.” 

Mr.  Mahon  says,  Make  choice  of  a piece  of  rich,  deep 
ground,  lay  it  out  into  four  feet  wide  beds,  push  the  loose 
earth  into  the  alleys,  then  sow  the  seed  tolerably  thin,  and 
cover  it  with  the  earth  out  of  these  alleys  to  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  deep.  Or,  let  drills  be  drawn  with  a 
hoe,  near  an  inch  deep,  and  a foot  or  a little  better  asunder ; 
drop  the  seeds  thinly  therein,  and  cover  them  over  the  same 


BEET. 


dl 


depth  as  above.  Or  you  may  sow  the  seed  on  a piece  of 
ground,  rough,  after  being  dug,  and  rake  it  well  in.” 

Subsequent  culture. — When  the  young  plants  are  advanced 
into  h'aves,  one,  two,  or  three  inches  in  growth,  they  must 
be  thinned  and  cleared  from  weeds,  especially  those  sown 
promiscuously,  or  broad-cast  and  in  drills.  If  there  be 
chasms  in  the  rows,  till  them  up  with  the  superfluous  plants. 
The  oftener  the  ground  is  stirred,  during  the  whole  course 
of  the  vegetation  of  the  plant,  the  larger  will  be  the  product, 
and  the  better  its  quality. 

As  soon  as  vegetation  is  over,  which  always  occurs  after 
the  first  hard  frost,  take  up  the  plants,  expose  them  a day 
or  two  to  the  air,  to  evaporate  their  surplus  moisture,  and 
then  house  them  carefully.  This  may  be  done  by  putting 
til  era  in  layers  in  a dry  cellar,  and  interposing  between  these 
a slight  covering  of  sand.  In  digging  the  roots,  great  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  be  not  broken  nor  cut,  as  they 
bleed  much.  For  the  same  reason,  the  leaves  should  be 
cut  off  at  least  an  inch  above  the  solid  part  of  the  root. 

To  save  seed. — Either  leave  a few  strong  roots  standing 
in  the  rows,  or  select  a few,  and  transplant  them  to  a spot 
where  there  will  be  no  danger,  when  in  flower,  of  being  im- 
pregnated with  any  other  variety.  They  will  shoot  up  the 
second  year,  when  their  flower-stocks  should  be  tied  to 
stakes,  to  prevent  their  breaking  over. 

Field  culture  of  the  mangel  wurtzel  heet^  and  the  sugar  beet. 
— Soil  and  preparation. — The  soil  for  these  roots  should  be 
a loam,  inclining  to  clay,  in  good  tilth,  well  manured,  and 
made  fine  to  a good  depth.  John  Hare  Powel,  Esq.,  cor- 
responding secretary  to  the  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, in  giving  an  account  of  his  mode  of  cultivating  this 
crop,  says,  My  soil  was  not  naturally  strong : it  has  been 
gradually  so  much  deepened  as  to  enable  Wood’s  plough, 
No.  2,  drawn  by  four  oxen,  to  plough  fourteen  inches  deep 
Fresh  barn-yard  manure  was  equally  spread  upon  the  sur- 
face, and  ploughed  under  in  the  early  part  of  April,  in  quan- 
tities not  larger  than  are  generally  used  for  potato  crops  in 
this  country.  Early  in  May,  the  land  \vas  twice  stirred  with 
Beatson’s  scarifier,  harrowed,  rolled ; after  stirred,  harrowed 
and  rolled  again  in  the  opposite  direction.”  The  soil  on 
which  Messrs.  Tristram  Little  and  Henry  Little  of  New- 
bury, Mass,  raised  their  premium  crop  in  1824,  is  a clay 


42 


BEET. 


loam.  In  1823,  about  three  fourths  of  the  same  was  sowed 
with  onions,  and  manured  with  about  8 cords  of  compost 
manure  to  the  acre.  The  other  quarter  was  sowed  with 
wheat  without  manure.  In  the  fall  of  1823,  there  were 
about  10  cords  of  compost  manure  drawn  on  the  lot,  and 
put  in  a heap.  Most  of  the  said  compost  was  drawn  from 
the  salt  marshes,  when  ditching  the  same ; the  other  part 
was  from  the  barn-yard.  In  the  month  of  April,  1824,  the 
heap  was  thrown  over,  and  well  mixed. 

Planting, — Col.  Powel  says,  “ The  holes  for  the  seeds 
were  made  by  a wheel,  containing  pegs  in  its  circumference, 
which  penetrated  the  ground  about  an  inch,  leaving  inter- 
vals of  four  inches;  the  rows  were  made  2 feet  asunder; 
two  capsules  were  dropped  into  each  hole  ; the  wheel  of  a 
common  barrow  was  passed  over  them,  thus  compressing 
the  earth,  and  leaving  a slight  rut  for  the  retention  of  mois- 
ture.” 

Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  observe,  that,  “ Be- 
tween the  8th  and  11th  of  May,  the  land  was  ploughed 
and  sowed  in  the  following  manner : — After  one  deep  plough- 
ing, the  ground  was  furrowed  two  and  a half  feet  apart,  and 
the  manure  put  into  the  furrows,  and  covered  with  a double 
mould-board  plough  ; a roller  was  then  passed  on  the  top 
of  the  ridge,  and  the  seed  dibbled  in  with  the  finger  over 
the  manure,  about  six  or  eight  inches  apart.”  The  quantity 
of  seed,  according  to  English  writers,  is  four  pounds  to  an 
acre.  Mr.  David  Little,  in  obtaining  a premium  crop,  sowed 
four  pounds,  but  observed  that  he  thought  half  that  quantity 
would  have  been  sufficient. 

After-culture, — In  raising  Col.  Powel’s  crop,  “ A small 
cultivator,  which  I had  contrived  for  the  purpose,  was 
drawn  between  the  rows  soon  after  the  weeds  appeared ; 
a three  iiich  triangular  hoe  removed  the  alternate  plants, 
leaving  the  others  at  distances  varying  from  8 to  12  inches 
asunder.  The  cultivator  was  twice  used  before  the  20th  of 
July.  The  heavy  rains  of  August  made  another  hoeing 
necessary,  and  surcharged  the  ground  so  much  with  mois- 
ture, that  all  roots  increased  much  less  in  that  month  than 
during  the  same  time  in  the  two  last  years.”  The  Messrs. 
Little,  in  the  course  of  the  season,  thinned  their  plants, 
and  left  them  from  6 to  12  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  They 
were  once  hoed,  and  ploughed  three  times  between  the 


BEET. 


43 


rows.”  Mr.  Powel,  in  raising  a previous  crop,  had  placed 
the  rows  30  inches  apart,  and  left  the  plants  6 inches  apart 
in  the  rows.  He  says,  ‘‘  I this  year  desired  smaller  roots, 
which  might  grow  so  closely,  as,  by  their  leaves,  to  protect 
the  soil  as  much  as  possible  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.  My 
cultivator,  by  its  peculiar  form,  enabled  me  to  cut  off  the 
weeds  when  the  plants  were  so  young,  that,  if  I had  applied 
the  plough,  their  crowns  must  have  been  covered  in  many 
instances,  by  earth  occasionally  falling  from  its  land  side. 
The  failure  which  attends  the  cultivation  of  most  root  crops 
in  drills,  proceeds  from  the  neglect  of  weeds  in  their  early 
stages.  Four  or  five  days  of  delay  frequently  make  the 
difference  of  fifteen  days  in  the  labour  of  making  clean  an 
acre  of  ground.  The  same  weeds  which  a boy  with  a sharp 
shingle  could  remove  at  the  commencement  of  one  week, 
may,  before  the  end  of  the  next,  require  the  application  of 
an  implement  drawn  by  a horse. 

“ I ascribe  my  success,  in  great  measure,  to  the  use  of 
Wood^s  extraordinary  plough^  which  enters  the  soil  more 
deeply,  and  pulverizes  it  more  perfectly,  than  any  other  I 
have  ever  seen,  with  equal  force,  in  any  country ; to  the  use 
of  cultivators,  which  complete  the  production  of  fine  tilth ; 
to  the  destruction  of  the  weeds  on  their  first  appearance — 
leaving  the  smallest  space  upon  which  a horse  can  walk 
between  the  rows ; and,  above  all,  to  planting  the  seeds  of  a 
proper  kind  upon  a surface  ivhich  is  kept  perfectly  flat.'*^ 

General  remarks, — Agriculturists  have  not  agreed  whether 
it  is  most  expedient  to  plant  the  seeds  of  this  root  on  ridges 
or  on  a level.  Col.  Powel  condemns  planting  on  ridges  in 
this  country,  as  a practice  not  adapted  to  our  soil  and  cli- 
mate, in  which  vegetables  are  very  liable  to  suffer  by  drought. 
He  says,  “Among  the  various  practices,  in  to  .which  we  have 
been  seduced  by  the  plausible  theories  of  the  advocates  of 
European  husbandry,  there  is  none  which  appears  to  me 
more  absurd  than  that  which  has  led  us  to  drill  or  dibble 
our  crops  on  ridges.  The  English  farmer  wisely  contends 
with  the  evils  produced  by  too  much  rain ; the  American 
husbandman  should  as  anxiously  guard  against  his  most  for- 
midable enemy,  drought.  I am  inclined  to  think  that  there 
is  no  crop  cultivated  in  this  state,  (Pennsylvania,)  which 
ought  not  to  be  put  on  a flat  surface.”  The  climate  of 
New  England,  especially  its  northern  part,  is  not  so  warm 

/ 


44 


BEET. 


and  dry  as  that  of  Pennsylvania,  and,  in  that  part  of  the 
United  States,  perhaps  the  nature  of  the  soil  should  decide 
the  question,  if  dry,  level  planting,  or  if  moist,  ridge  planting 
should  be  adopted.” 

We  have  heard  complaints  from  American  farmers,  that 
the  seed  of  this  root  is  slow  and  uncertain  in  coming  up. 
Perhaps  the  seed  or  soil,  or  both,  may  sometimes  be  too 
dry  at  the  time  of  sowing.  A writer  in  the  English  Far- 
w.er'^s  Journal  says,  I have  of  late  years  steeped  my  seed 
for  at  least  forty-eight  hours.  I made  an  experiment  with 
twenty  sound  seeds  not  steeped,  twenty  steeped  twenty-four 
hours,  and  the  same  number  steeped  forty-eight  hours; 
every  seed  of  the  latter  produced  plants,  which  came  up 
two  or  three  days  sooner  than  either  of  the  others,  and 
some  of  those  not  steeped  did  not  come  up  at  all.”  Mr.  Cob- 
bett,  in  treating  of  the  culture  of  the  common  garden  beets, 
{American  Gardener j par,  198,)  directs  to  soak  the  seed 
four  days  and  nights  in  rain  w^ater  before  it  is  sowed ; and 
observes,  that  the  mangel  wurtzel  should  be  cultivated  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  other  kinds  of  beets.  American 
writers,  so  far  as  we  have  observed,  give  no  directions  for 
soaking  the  seeds  of  this  vegetable  before  planting;  and  it 
is  possible  that  the  omission  of  this  part  of  the  process  may 
cause  the  slowness  and  uncertainty  of  vegetation  complained 
of.  The  capsule,  or  husk,  which  contains  the  seeds,  is  dry, 
and  it  requires  a long  time  for  the  moisture,  which  it  may 
derive  from  the  earth,  to  penetrate  this  integument,  so  as 
to  c ause  the  seed  to  sprout.  But  if  the  soil  be  very  moist 
at  the  time  of  sowing,  soaking  the  seed  had  better  be  omit- 
ted. 

Much  has  been  w^ritten  and  said  on  the  subject  of  strip- 
ping these  plants  of  their  leaves  for  feeding  cows  and  other 
economical  purposes.  An  English  writer  observes,  that 
six  or  seven  crops  of  leaves  amd  stocks  may  be  taken  off 
during  the  growth  of  the  root ; women  and  children  can 
take  off  the  leaves,  which  is  done  as  follows  : — They  should 
place  their  hands  on  each  side  of  the  root,  at  the  foot  stalks 
of  the  leaves,  leaving  about  six  of  the  smallest  central  leaves 
between  the  fore-finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand,  (the  small 
leaves  are  to  be  left  on  the  root  to  grow,  to  make  a fresh 
top;)  then,  spreading  the  hand  flat  with  their  face  down- 
wards, push  them  both  at  the  same  time  towards  the  ground, 


BEET, 


45 


and  thus,  by  one  motion,  will  the  whole  of  the  top  of  each 
root,  except  the  small  leaves  to  be  left  to  form  a fresh  head^ 
be  removed  without  unsettling  the  root  or  its  fibres,  whicli 
would  check  its  growth.  Some  affiim,  that  stripping  the 
plant  of  its  leaves  is  no  injury  to  the  root,  and  others  are  ol 
opinion  that  the  root  is  injured  by  this  means.  We  have- 
doubts,  whether,  in  field  cultivation,  it  will  often  be  deemea 
expedient  to  expend  time  and  labour  in  this  manner.  The 
thinnings,  or  superfluous  plants,  however,  should  be  pre 
served,  as  they  make  excellent  food  for  milch  cows  or  store 
swine. 

Some  cultivators  affirm,  that  it  is  never  worth  the  trouble 
to  transplant  these  roots  to  fill  vacancies.  ‘‘  I have  seen,” 
says  an  English  writer,  much  labour  and  expense  em- 
ployed in  transplanting  into  vacant  spots,  when  the  seed 
has  been  dibbled  thick  enough,  but  have  never  seen  the 
transplanted  roots  worth  half  the  trouble;  the  tap  root 
being  broken  in  the  drawing,  nothing  but  the  top,  and  use- 
less rough  roots  and  fangs  are  produced.  It  has  been  re- 
marked by  other  writers,  that  the  most  common  cause  of 
failure  in  transplanting  this  root  is  the  taking  of  them  up 
when  too  small,  before  the  plants  have  obtained  strength 
and  size  sufficient  to  bear  the  operation  of  transplanting. 

Use. — The  following  remarks  are  from  a paper  commu- 
nicated to  the  trustees  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Society,  by  J.  Lowell,  Esq,  president  of  said  society.  They 
are  derived,  principally,  from  a French  publication,  by  the 
Abbe  Rosier : — 

This  root  is  very  little  affected  by  changes  of  weather. 
It  is  attacked  by  no  insect ; drought  affects  but  little  its 
vegetation.  It  prepares  the  land  extremely  well  for  other 
crops.  It  may  be  sown  and  treated  precisely  like  the  com- 
mon beet,  except  that  it  ought  to  stand  eighteen  inches 
asunder. 

In  good  land,  they  often  weigh  nine  or  ten  pounds,  and 
are  stripped  eight  or  nine  times.  In  a light,  sandy,  but  well 
manured  soil,  they  sometimes  weigh  fourteen  and  even  six- 
teen pounds  each ! 

The  first  crop  of  leaves  in  France  is  taken  off  in  the 
latter  end  of  June,  or  the  beginning  of  July.  In  this  coun- 
try, probably,  the  latter  period  would  be  preferable.  The 
lower  leaves,  those  which  incline  towards  the  ground,  are 


46 


BEET, 


those  which  are  taken  away,  and  care  must  be  taken  to  pre- 
serve the  top  leaves,  or  the  crown  of  the  plants.  The 
leaves  may  be  taken  oiF  every  fifteen  days  after  the  first 
gathering.  Oxen,  cows  and  sheep  devour  them  greedily, 
and  fatten  readily  upon  them.  All  domestic  poultry  eat 
them  readily,  when  chopped  fine  and  mixed  with  grain. 
Horses  will  feed  upon  them  very  well,  mixed  with  chopped 
straw.  Hogs  also  fatten  upon  them. 

“ Cows  fed  upon  this  root,  solely,  give  a greater  quan- 
tity of  milk  and  cream,  and  of  better  quality  for  the  first 
fifteen  days,  after  which  they  grow  too  fat,  and  the  milk 
lessens.  The  food  of  cows  must  therefore  be  varied.  Oxen 
and  sheep  fatten  very  well  upon  them.  Cows  should  have 
grass  in  proportion  of  one  third  to  the  beet  leaves,  or  every 
third  day  they  should  be  turned  to  grass.  In  this  mode 
their  milk  will  be  excellent.  The  trouble  of  gathering  the 
leaves  is  less  than  that  of  gathering  any  other  green  fodder. 
It  may  be  done  by  children,  while  men  are  required  to  cut 
other  green  food  for  cattle.  It  is  the  surest  crop,  since  the 
plant  will  stand  the  largest  droughts.  The  roots  are  gath- 
ered and  treated  like  those  of  the  common  beet.  The  skin 
is  very  tender,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  handle  them  so 
as  they  may  not  be  wounded,  as  they  will,  in  that  case,  not 
keep  so  well.  In  order  to  preserve  the  seed  in  purity,  care 
must  be  taken  to  change  the  ground  in  which  the  seed-beets 
are  planted.  The  seed  can  be  preserved,  after  it  is  gath- 
ered, three  or  four  years,  without  injury.  In  giving  these 
roots  to  cattle  for  food,  they  are  first  washed,  and  then  cut 
up  into  pieces  about  the  size  of  a nut.  It  is  always  best  to 
accompany  thena,  when  given  to  horned  cattle,  with  clover, 
or  other  hay  or  straw,  and  if  the  hay  or  straw  has  been 
previously  cut  fine,  it  will  be  preferable.  If  horses  are  fed 
with  this  root,  with  a proportion  of  hay  or  cut  straw,  (hall 
of  each,)  they  will  be  fat,  vigorous  and  healthy.  If  they 
are  worked  severely,  a little  oats  or  corn  maybe  added.  It 
is  thus  they  are  treated  in  Germany,  where  this  root  stands 
in  the  stead  of  meadows  or  grass  lands,  and  whose  excel- 
lent horses  are  well  known. 

“ Hogs,  fed  upon  them  raw,  after  they  have  been  cut  up 
fine  and  mixed  with  milk  or  other  drink,  fatten  as  well  upon 
them  as  upon  boiled  potatoes,  by  which  the  fuel  and  trouble 
of  boiling  is  saved, 


47 


to  the  quantity  given  to  animals,  much  Will  depend 
on  the  proportion  of  other  fodder,  vv^hich  you  allow  them^ 
Cows  fed  twice  a day  in  wintef  upon  eighteen  pounds  of 
these  roots  at  each  time,  together  with  four  pounds  of  hay 
or  chopped  straw,  will  give  as  much  arid  as  good  milk  as 
in  summer,  and  they  will  be  kept  in  the^ best  possible  state. 

Oxen  fed  with  forty  weight  of  these  roots  per  day,  with 
ten  pounds  of  hay,  for  one  month,  and  after  that  With  fifty 
weight  per  day  of  the  roots  alone,  ^vill  be  fat  enough  for  sale 
in  two  months  more. 

Any  person  disposed  may,  from  the  facts  above  stated, 
calculate  how  many  cattle  will  be  supported  by  a single 
acre  of  land  on  which  this  plant  is  cultivated. 

“ Men  can  eat  this  vegetable  throughout  the  year ; it  is 
ag**eeable  and  healthy.  No  insect  attacks  it,  and  it  suffers 
buc  little  from  the  variety  of  the  seasons.  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  form  alone  an  excellent  food  for  every  species  of 
domestic  quadruped,  during  four  months  in  the  year.  Tur- 
nips and  other  vegetables  are,  besides,  liable  to  be  destroyed 
by  insects,  whereas  this  beet  is  not.  The  roots  can  be  pre- 
served eight  months  in  a sound  state,  while  turnips  are  of 
little  value  after  March.  In  some  soils  turnips  will  not 
grow,  particularly  in  those  which  are  very  stiff  or  strong. 
The  root  of  scarcity  grows  every  where.  The  milk  of 
cows  fed  on  turnips  has  a bad  taste.  That  of  those  fed  on 
this  plant  is  excellent,  as  is  also  the  butter  made  from  it. 
This  forage  on  green  fodder  comes  also  at  the  hot  seasons, 
when  almost  all  other  green  food  is  scarce,  and  sometimes 
not  to  be  procured.  Cattle  never  get  tired  of  it.  In  many 
parts  of  Germany,  where  it  is  raised  with  success,  they  pre- 
fer it  to  every  thing  else  to  fatten  those  large  herds  of  cattle 
which  they  annually  export  to  France.  In  feeding  cattle 
with  beets,  the  same  dry  food  must  be  given  which  is  usu- 
ally given  with  turnips.’’ 

Col.  Powel  observes,  “ My  neat  cattle  prefer  mangel 
wurtzel  to  any  roots  which  I have  offered  to  them.  I 
have  found  its  effects  in  producing  large  secretions  of  good 
milk  very  great.  I selected,  in  November,  two  heifers  of 
the  same  breed,  and  very  nearly  of  the  same  age,  and  in 
similar  condition  ; they  were  fed  in  adjoining  stalls,  and 
have  been  fed,  regularly,  three  times  a day,  by  the  same 
maij.  One  of  them  has  had  three  pecks  of  mangel  wurtzel, 


BEET. 


iS 

and  four  quarts  of  corn  meal,  daily ; the  other,  four  and  a 
half  pecks  of  mangel  wurtzel.  The  last,  which  has  had 
mangel  wurtzel  alone,  is  in  the  condition  of  good  beef ; the 
other  is  not  more  than  what  graziers  call  half  fat. 

‘‘  The  application  of  mangel  wurtzel  as  food  for  sheep 
is  not  the  least  important  of  its  uses.  Ewes  yean  usually  at 
the  season  when  grass  cannot  be  supplied.*  The  health  of 
themselves,  and  the  thrift  of  their  lambs,  essentially  depend 
upon  succulent  food  being  had.  I am  inclined  to  think,  that 
no  small  portion  of  the  success  which  English  breeders  have 
met,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  large  stores  of  roots,  which 
they  always  have  at  command.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that 
Indian  meal  will,  of  itself,  in  most  cases,  produce  extraor- 
dinary fatness,  as  well  as  great  size ; but  I have  been  led 
to  believe,  that  diseases  are  early  engendered  by  this  spe- 
cies of  forcing,  which  is  always  expensive,  and,  too  often, 
eventually  destroys  the  animal  which  has  been  thus  reared.” 

A writer  in  the  Farmer^s  Journal  says,  This  root  is 
now  generally  allowed  to  stand  eminent  for  the  excellence 
of  its  fattening  qualities.  Among  our  field  productions, 
parsnips  and  carrots  may  justly  be  declared  more  nutritious ; 
Swedish  turnips,  as  holding  divided  empire  with  it ; while 
white  turnips  and  cabbages  sink  into  insignificance  before 
it.  The  taste,  both  of  the  leaf  and  root,  is  most  grateful 
to  every  description  of  stock:  bullocks,  sheep  and  hogs 
instinctively  lay  hold  of  them,  and,  when  once  accustomed 
to  their  flavour,  they  reject  every  other  sort  of  green  food, 
if  they  have  the  election. 

No  edible  root  has  yet  been  brought  into  use,  which 
has  an  affinity  to  the  one  under  consideration,  with  respect 
to  its  imperishable  properties.  The  white  turnip  is  in 
March  entirely  divested  of  its  fattening  power ; the  Swede 
in  May  becomes  shrivelled,  and  is  almost  refused  by  cat- 
tle ; the  potato,  after  this  time,  entirely  sprouts  away  all 
its  vigour,  diminishes  in  bulk,  and  dries  up ; but  not  so  the 
mangel  wurtzel.  It  is  not  only  ready  for  use  in  the  au- 
tumn, the  winter,  and  spring,  but  may,  if  required,  be 
continued  with  unabated  advantage,  and,  in  the  following 
autumn,  it  will  be  found  in  full  possession  of  its  most 
valuable  qualities,  undiminished  in  weight,  and  abounding 
in  saccharine  juices.”  It  has,  however,  been  thought  by 
cultivators  in  this  country,  that  the  rula  baga  is  more  easily 


BEET. 


49> 


preserved,  and  will  remain  useful  to  a later  period  in  the 
spring  and  summer  after  its  growth,  than  the  mangel  wurt- 
zel. 

Messrs.  T.  and  H.  Little  observe,  as  to  the  value  of  the 
roots  for  feeding  stock,  there  is  a variety  of  opinions ; 
but,  from  a number  of  years’  experience,  we  think  them  a 
valuable  addition,  and  highly  worth  cultivating.  Compar- 
ing them  with  English  hay, — and  we  know  of  no  better 
standard — in  our  opinion,  three  tons  of  mangel  wurtzel, 
or  potatoes, — of  the  two,  we  value  the  mangel  wurtzel  the 
highest, — are  equal  to  one  ton  of  hay,  for  feeding  stock  gen- 
erally ; but  for  milch  cows,  we  think  two  tons  of  equal 
value  ; for  feeding  store  swine,  mangel  wurtzel  is  the 
only  root,  that  we  know  of,  which  we  can  cultivate  and 
feed  to  profit.  Six  bushels  of  raw  mangel  wurUel  we 
think  equal  to  one  bushel  of  Indian  corn.” 

Quantity  to  an  acre, — The  premium  crop  of  the  Messis. 
Little  was  33  tons  10  cwt.  and  14  lbs.  on  an  acre. 
Col.  Powel  enclosed  certificates  to  the  president  of  the 
Penn.  Agr.  Society,  showing  that  sixteen  hundred  and 
thirty-four  bushels  of  mangel  wurtzel,  weighing  seventy- 
eight  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds,  were 
produced  upon  one  acre  and  fourteen  perches ; and  a part 
of  the  same  field,  containing  thirteen  contiguous  rows,  pro- 
duced at  the  rate  of  two  thousand  and  sixty-five  bushels 
per  acre,  weighing  44  tons,  5 cwt.  and  27  lbs.  In  Great 
Britain,  it  is  said  that  upwards  of  sixty  tons  have  been 
raised  on  an  acre. 

Gathering  and  preserving, — In  gathering  the  roots,  care 
should  be  taken  to  cut  otF  the  leaves  about  half  an  inch 
above  the  crown,  as  they  will  not  keep  so  well,  if  cut  more 
closely.  Messrs.  Tristram  and  Henry  Little  say,  ‘‘  As  to 
the  best  mode  of  preserving  them,  we  have  tried  divers 
ways, — by  pitting  them,  by  putting  them  into  a barn,  and 
covering  them  with  hay,  and  by  putting  them  into  the  cel- 
lar; the  last  mode  we  think  the  best.”  Col.  Powel  observes, 
that  one  of  his  crops  was  piled  in  a cellar,  in  rows,  as 
wood,  and  covered  with  sand.”  A writer  in  the  English 
Farmer^s  Journal  observes,  that  he  has  practised,  with 
success,  the  following  mode  of  preserving  this  root : — I 
pack  it  in  long  heaps,  about  seven  feet  wide  at  the  bottom. 
I begin  by  forming  the  outsides  with  the  roots,  not  stripped 


50 


BEET. 


of  their  tops ; tops  outwards ; the  internal  parts  to  be  filled 
with  roots  without  leaves ; continue  one  layer  over  anoth- 
er, until  the  heap  is  about  six  feet  high,  and  about  two  feet 
broad  at  top,  which  may  be  covered  with  straw  and  earth  ; 
the  ends  of  the  hea^  should  be  covered  in  the  same  way  ; 
the  leaves  form  an  efficient  covering  against  rain  and  frost” 

Mr.  McMahon’s  mode  of  preserving  beets,  and  other 
roots,  is  as  follows  : — Previous  to  the  commencement  of 
severe  frost,  you  should  take  up,  with  as  little  injury  as  possi- 
ble, the  roots  of  your  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  beets,  salsify, 
scorzonera,  Hamburg  or  large-rooted  parsley,  skirrets,  Je- 
rusalem artichokes,  turnip-rooted  celery,  and  a sufficiency 
of  horse-radish,  for  the  winter  consumption ; cut  off  their 
tops,  and  expose  the  roots  for  a few  hours,  till  sufficiently 
dry.  On  the  surface  of  a very  dry  spot  of  ground,  in  a 
well  sheltered  situation,  lay  a stratum  of  sand  two  inches 
thick,  and  on  this  a layer  of  roots  of  either  sort,  covering 
them  with  another  layer  of  sand,  (the  drier  the  better,)  and 
so  continue  layer  about  of  sand  and  roots  till  all  are  laid 
in,  giving  the  whole,  on  every  side,  a roof-like  slope ; then 
cover  this  heap  or  ridge  all  over  with  about  two  inches  of 
sand,  over  which  lay  a good  coat  of  drawn  straw,  up  and 
down,  as  if  thatching  a house,  in  order  to  carry  off  wet, 
and  prevent  its  entering  the  roots  ; then  dig  a wide  trench 
round  the  heap,  and  cover  the  straw  with  the  earth  so  dug 
up,  to  a depth  sufficient  to  preserve  the  roots  effectually 
from  frost.  An  opening  may  be  made  on  the  south  side  of 
this  heap,  and  completely  covered  with  bundles  of  straw, 
so  as  to  have  access  to  the  roots  at  all  times,  when  wanted 
either  for  sale  or  use. 

Some  people  lay  straw,  or  hay,  between  the  layers  of 
roots,  and  immediately  on  the  top  of  them ; this  I do  not 
approve  of,  as  the  straw  or  hay  will  become  damp  and 
mouldy,  and  very  often  occasion  the  roots  to  rot,  while  the 
sand  would  preserve  them  sweet  and  sound. 

All  these  roots  may  be  preserved  in  like  manner  in  a 
cellar;  but  in  such  a place  they  are  subject  to  vegetate  and 
become  stringy  earlier  in  spring.  The  only  advantage  of 
this  method  is,  that  in  the  cellar  they  may  be  had  when 
wanted,  more  conveniently  during  winter,  than  out  of  the 
field  or  garden  heaps. 

^‘Note,  All  the  above  roots  will  preserve  better  in  sand 


BENE  PLANT. BORECOLE. 


51 


than  in  common  earth ; but  when  the  former  cannot  be 
had,  the  sandiest  earth  you  can  procure  must  be  dispensed 
with.” 

BENE  PLANT. — Sesamum. — This  was  introduced  into 
the  Southern  States  by  the  negroes  from  Africa.  It  abounds 
in  many  parts  of  Africa.  Sonnini  and  Brown,  travellers  in 
Egypt,  say  it  is  much  cultivated  there  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  horses,  and  for  culinary  purposes.  The  negroes  in 
Georgia  boil  a handful  of  the  seeds  with  their  allowance  of 
Indian  corn.  Probably  no  plant  yields  a larger  proportion 
of  oil,  which  Dr.  Cooper  of  Philadelphia  has  pronounced 
equal  to  the  finest  oils.  But  it  is  worthy  of  cultivation  in  the 
Northern  States,  principally,  as  a medicinal  plant.  A gen- 
tleman in  Virginia  has  given  Messrs.  Thorburn  & Son  the 
following  account  of  its  virtues  : — It  requires  to  be  sown 
early  in  April,  at  a distance  of  about  one  foot  apart.  A 
few  leaves  of  the  plant,  when  green,  plunged  a few  times 
in  a tumbler  of  water,  make  it  like  a thin  jelly,  without 
taste  or  colour,  which  children  afflicted  with  the  summer 
complaint  will  drink  freely,  and  is  said  to  be  the  best  rem- 
edy ever  discovered.  It  has  been  supposed,  that  (under 
Providence)  the  lives  of  three  hundred  children  were  saved 
by  it  last  summer  in  Baltimore,  and  I know  the  efficacy  of 
it  by  experience  in  my  own  family.”  This  plant  will  throw 
out  a greater  profusion  of  leaves  by  breaking  off  the  top 
when  it  is  about  half  grown. — RusselPs  Catalogue. 

BORECOLE. — Brassica  oleracea. — The  borecole  con- 
tains several  sub- varieties,  the  common  characteristic  of  all 
which  is  an  open  head,  sometimes  large,  of  curled  or  wrin- 
kled leaves,  and  a peculiar,  hardy  constitution.  There  are 
fourteen  varieties  enumerated  by  Loudon.  Those  which 
he  says  are  the  most  valuable,  are  the  green  borecole, 
Scotch  kale,  or  Siberian  borecole,  the  purple  or  brown  kale, 
the  German  kaie,  German  greens,  or  curlies. 

Propagation.— All  the  sorts  are  propagated  by  seed  ; and 
for  a seed  bed  four  feet  by  ten,  Abercrombie  says,  one 
ounce  of  seed  is  necessary.  McMahon  directs  to  sow 
towards  the  end  of  March  [about  three  weeks  later  in 
New  England]  a first  crop  of  borecole  for  autumn  ser- 
vice,” and  observes — 

There  are  two  principal  sorts,  the  green  and  the 
brown,  both  very  hardy  plants,  with  tall  stems,  and  full  heads 


BORER. ^BROCCOLI. 


of  thick  fimbriate,  curled  leaves,  not  cabbaging,  and  are 
desirable  open  greens  for  winter,  &c.  Let  this  seed  be  sown 
in  an  open  exposure,  distant  from  trees,  and  from  close 
fences,  as,  in  such  situations,  they  are  apt  to  draw  up  too 
fast,  with  long,  weak  stalks ; sow  it  broad-cast,  and  rake  it 
in.”  Several  crops  may  be  sown  in  several  successive 
months,  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  middle  of  Septem- 
ber. In  dry  weather,  water  the  plants  occasionally,  both 
before  and  after  they  are  up.  ‘‘  When  about  three  inches 
high,  it  will  be  proper  to  thin  the  seed  bed,  and  prick  out  a 
quantity  therefrom,  at  four  inches  distance,  that  the  whole 
may  obtain  proper  strength  for  final  transplanting. 

“ When  the  plants  are  set  in  the  places,  where  they  are 
to  complete  their  growth,  they  should  be  planted  ,out  like 
cabbages,  at  three  feet  distance  every  way,  and  afterwards 
be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the  earth  drawn  to  their 
stems  as  they  advance  in  growth.  Those  intended  for  win- 
ter use  should  not  be  planted  in  a rich,  fat  loam,  as  there 
they  would  become  too  succulent,  and  consequently  could 
not  bear  the  frost  as  well  as  if  growing  on  a gravelly  soil. 
Such  as  are  designed  for  autumn  use,  may  be  planted  in 
any  convenient  bed  that  is  tolerably  rich. 

The  green  and  brown  curled  borecole,  being  very  hardy, 
will  require  little  protection  [against  the  cold  of  winter]. 
In  November  they  may  be  taken  up,  and  planted  in  a ridge 
tolerably  close  together,  and,  during  severe  frost,  be  covered 
lightly  with  straw ; this  will  preserve  them  sufficiently : 
and  during  winter  the  heads  may  be  taken  off  as  they  are 
wanted  for  use ; the  stems,  if  taken  up  and  planted  in  rows, 
as  early  in  March  as  the  weather  will  admit,  will  produce 
abundance  of  the  most  delicious  sprouts. 

“ In  the  Southern  States,  and  even  in  warm  soils  and  ex- 
posures in  the  Middle  States,  borecole  will  stand  the  winter 
in  open  beds,  without  any  covering  whatever.” — M Mahon. 

Us^. — ^The  crown  or  centre  of  the  plant  is  cut  off,  so  as 
to  include  the  leaves  which  do  not  exceed  nine  inches  in 
length.  It  boils  well,  and  is  most  tender,  sweet  and  deli- 
cate, provided  it  has  been  duly  exposed  to  frost. — Loudon. 

BORER. — Saperda  Uvitata. — An  insect  that  injures  ap- 
ple-trees, &c. — See  Insects. 

BROCCOLI. — Brassica  oleracea. — ^There  are  several 
varieties  of  broccoli,  which  axe  all  merely  late-heading  va- 


BROCCOLI. 


53 


rieties  of  the  cauliflower.  Miller  mentions  the  white  and 
purple  broccoli,  as  imported  into  England  from  Italy  ; and 
it  is  thought  that  from  these  two  sorts  all  the  subsequent 
kinds  liave  arisen,  either  by  accidental  or  premeditated 
impregnations.  The  kinds  introduced  into  this  country  arc, 
the  early  white,  early  purple,  and  large  cape. 

The  seeds  of  broccoli  should  be  sown  in  New  England 
about  the  latter  end  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June  ; and 
when  the  young  plants  have  germinated  eight  leaves,  they 
should  be  transplanted  into  beds.  By  this  management, 
towards  the  latter  end  of  July,  they  v/ill  be  fit  to  be  planted 
out  in  some  well  sheltered  piece  of  ground,  at  the  distance 
of  a foot  and  a half  in  the  rows,  and  two  feet  between 
each  row. 

The  soil  proper  for  broccoli  is  rather  light  than  heavy. 
McMahon  says,  the  early  purple  broccoli,  if  sown  early  in 
April,  and  planted  out  as  you  do  cabbage,  in  good  rich 
ground,  will  produce  fine  heads  in  October  or  November, 
very  little  inferior  to  cauliflowers,  and,  by  many,  preferred 
to  them : the  white  will  not  flower  so  early,  and,  in  the 
Middle  and  Eastern  States,  must  be  taken  up  in  November, 
and  managed  as  directed  in  that  month,  [see  preserving 
cabbagesy^^  &c.  under  the  article  Cabbage,  in  the  following 
pages,]  by  which  a supply  of  this  very  delicious  vegetable 
may  be  had,  in  great  perfection,  during  ail  the  winter 
and  spring. 

“ In  such  of  the  Southern  States,  as  their  winters  are  not 
more  severe  than  in  England,  they  will  stand  in  the  open 
ground,  and  continue  to  produce  their  fine  flowers,  from 
October  to  April.  In  the  Middle,  and  especially  the  East- 
ern States,  if  the  seeds  are  sown  early  in  March  on  a hot- 
bed, and  forwarded  as  is  done  with  cauliflowers  and  early 
cabbage  plants,  and  planted  out  finally  in  April,  it  would 
be  the  most  certain  method  of  obtaining  large  and  early 
flowers.” 

Insects  and  diseases, — In  old  gardens,  infested,  as  is  of- 
ten the  case,  with  an  insect  which  in  summer  insinuates 
itself  into  the  roots  of  all  the  hrassica  tribe,  and  causes  the 
disease  called  the  cluby  trenching  the  ground  deep  enough 
to  bring  up  four  or  six  inches  of  undisturbed  loam  or  earth, 
will  probably  bury  the  insects  too  deep  for  mischief,  and 
provide  fresh  ground  for  the  benefit  of  the  plants.  In  gar- 


64 


BROCCOl-l. 


dens  much  exhausted  by  reiterated  croppings,  if  this  mode 
cannot  be  adopted,  a good  quantity  of  fresh  loam  from  a 
common  field,  dug  in,  would  materially  improve  the  broc- 
coli, and  be  of  lasting  use  in  future  crops.  Broccoli,  in 
general,  succeeds  best  in  a fresh,  loamy  soil,  where  it  comes, 
I think,  more  true  in  kind,  and  is  hardier  without  dung ; 
but  if  this  situation  cannot  be  had,  deep  digging,  with  plen- 
ty of  manure,  is  the  only  remaining  alternative  to  produce 
good  crops.  I believe  soap  ashes,  dug  into  the  ground  in 
considerable  quantities,  to  be  a good  preservative  from  the 
club ; and  if  the  roots  of  the  plants,  just  previously  to 
planting,  are  dipped  and  stirred  well  about  in  mud  of  soap 
ashes  with  water, its  adherence  will,  in  a great  measure,  pre- 
serve them  from  attack;  perhaps  a mixture  of  stronger 
ingredients,  such  as  soot,  sulphur,  tobacco,  &c.  would  be 
still  better.” — Hort  Trans,  vol.  iii. — See  Cabbage. 

Wood,  a writer  in  the  Caledonian  Horticultural  Memoirs^ 
says,  he  has  paid  a considerable  degree  of  attention  to  the 
culture  of  broccoli,  and  has  made  considerable  progress 
therein.  He  found  that  manuring  with  a compound  of 
sea-weed  and  horse-dung  produced  the  largest  and  finest 
heads  he  had  seen  for  many  years. 

Culture  without  transplanting. — “ McLeod  grows  cape 
broccoli,  in  a very  superior  manner,  without  transplanting. 
In  the  end  of  May,  after  having  prepared  the  ground,  he 
treads  it  firm,  and,  by  the  assistance  of  a line,  sows  his 
seed  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  dropping  three  or  four  seeds 
into  holes  two  feet  distant  from  each  other  in  the  row. 
When  the  seeds  vegetate,  he  destroys  all  except  the  strong- 
est, which  are  protected  from  the  fly  by  sprinkling  a little 
soot  over  the  ground ; as  the  plants  advance,  they  are  fre- 
quently flat  hoed  until  they  bear  their  flowers ; they  are 
once  earthed  up,  during  their  growth.  A specimen  of 
broccoli,  thus  grown,  was  exhibited  to  the  Horticultural 
Society ; the  head  was  compact  and  handsome,  measuring 
two  feet  and  nine  inches  in  circumference,  and  weighing, 
when  divested  of  its  leaves  and  stalks,  three  pounds ; the 
largest  of  its  leaves  was  upwards  of  two  feet  long.  McLe- 
od adopts  the  same  mode  in  the  cultivation  of  spring-sown 
cauliflowers,  lettuces,  and  almost  all  other  vegetables,  avoid- 
ing transplanting  as  much  as  possible.” — Hort.  Trans.  voL 
ir.  p.  559. 


BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 


55 


To  save  seed, — ^Wood,  already  mentioned,  selects  the 
largest,  best  formed,  and  finest  heads,  taking  particular 
care  that  no  foliage  appears  on  the  surface  of  the  heads  : 
these  he  marks,  and,  in  April,  lays  them  by  the  heels  in  a 
compound  of  cleanings  of  old  ditches,  tree  leaves,  and 
dung.  When  the  head  begins  to  open  or  expand,  he  cuts 
oui  ihe  centre,  leaving  only  four  or  five  of  the  outside 
shoots  to  come  to  seed.  Lifting,  [taking  up,]  he  says,  pre- 
vents them  from  producing  proud  seed,  as  it  is  called,  or 
degenerating. — Caled,  Hort,  Mem.  vol.  ii.  p.  267.  Aber- 
crombie says,  broccoli  seeds  degenerate  in  this  country, 
[England,]  and  that  the  best  seed  is  obtained  from  Italy. 
— Loudon.  The  common  directions  are,  in  substance,  as 
follow^ : 

Reserve  a few  of  the  largest  heads  of  the  first  crop, 
stripping  constantly  off  all  under  shoots,  leaving  only  the 
main  stem  to  flower  and  seed,  and  tie  them  to  strong  stakes, 
to  prevent  their  being  broken  by  winds  and  heavy  rain. 
Care  should  be  taken,  that  no  other  sort  of  cabbage  is  suf- 
fered to  go  to  seed  near  them. 

Use. — The  same  as  the  Cauliflower,  which  see  in  its 
alphabetical  order. 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. — Brassica  oleracea. — The 
Brussels  sprouts  produce  an  elongated  stem,  often  four  feet 
high,  from  which  sprout  out  shoots,  which  form  small 
green  heads,  like  cabbages  in  miniature,  each  being  from 
one  to  two  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  whole  ranged  spi- 
rally along  the  stem,  the  main  leaves  of  which  drop  off 
early.  The  top  of  the  plant  resembles  that  of  a Savoy, 
planted  late  in  the  season  ; it  is  small,  and  with  a green 
heart  of  little  value.  Van  Mons  says,  {Hort.  Trans,  vol. 
iii.)  If  this  vegetable  be  compared  with  any  other,  which 
occupies  as  little  space,  lasts  as  long,  and  grows  as  well  in 
situations  generally  considered  unfavourable,  such  as  between 
rows  of  potatoes,  scarlet  runners,  or  among  young  trees,  it 
must  be  esteemed  superior  in  utility  to  most  others.”  Ni- 
col  considered  it  deserving  a more  general  culture  in  Scot- 
land. 

Use. — The  sprouts  are  used  as  winter  greens ; and  at 
Brussels  they  are  sometimes  served  at  table,  with  a sauce 
composed  of  vinegar,  butter  and  nutmeg,  poured  upon  them 
hot,  after  they  have  been  boiled.  The  top.  Van  Mons 


56 


BUCKTHORN. 


says,  is  very  delicate  when  dressed,  and  quite  different  in 
flavour  from  the  sprouts. 

Culture, — The  plants  are  raised  from  seed,  of  which  an 
ounce  may  be  requisite  for  a seed  bed,  four  feet  by  ten  feet. 
Van  Mons,iu  the  paper  already  referred  to,  says,  “ The  seed 
is  sown  in  the  spring,  under  a frame,  so  as  to  bring  the 
plants  forward ; they  are  then  transplanted  into  an  open 
border  with  a good  aspect.”  By  thus  beginning  early  and 
sowing  successively  till  late  in  the  season,  he  says,  “ we 
contrive  to  supply  ourselves  in  Belgium  with  this  delicious 
vegetable  full  ten  months  in  the  year ; that  is,  from  the  end 
of  July  to  the  end  of  May.”  The  plants  need  not  be  placed 
at  more  than  eighteen  inches  each  way,  as  the  head  does 
not  spread  wide,  and  the  side  leaves  drop  off.  In  this,  as 
in  every  other  respect,  the  culture  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  borecole. 

Gathering  the  crop.— Morgan  says,  the  sprouts  must  have 
some  frost  before  gathered;  but  this  Van  Mons  assures  us 
is  an  erroneous  opinion.  In  Belgium,  the  small  cabbages 
are  not  esteemed  if  more  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  It 
is  usual  to  cut  off  the  top  about  ten  or  fifteen  days  before 
gathering  from  the  stem.  In  spring,  when  the  sprouts  are 
disposed  to  run  to  flower,  their  growth  is  checked  by  taking 
up  the  plants,  and  setting  them  in  the  ground  in  any  shaded 
spot. 

To  save  seed, — Van  Mons  says,  it  is  usual  to  save  seeds 
indiscriminately  from  plants  which  have  and  those  which 
have  not  been  topped ; but  that  he  intends  to  save  from  the 
tops  only,  hoping  thereby  to  improve  the  progeny.  What- 
ever mode  be  adopted,  the  grand  object  is  to  place  the 
plants  where  they  will  be  in  no  danger  of  receiving  the  fa- 
rina of  any  other  of  the  hrassica  tribes. — Loudon, 

BUCKTHORN. — Rhamnus, — There  are  many  plants  of 
this  genus ; but  we  shall  take  notice  of  but  one  species, 
principally  on  account  of  its  use  in  forming  hedges.  The 
kind  used  for  that  purpose  is  the  rhamnus  catharticus^  or 
purging  buckthorn.  It  is  common  in  a wild  state  in  Eng- 
land and  other  parts  of  Europe,  as  w^ell  as  in  the  United 
States.  Gen.  E.  H.  Derby,  of  Salem,  Mass,  has  cultivated 
this  plant,  and  is,  we  believe,  the  first  person  who  applied 
it  to  the  very  important  use  of  forming  hedges ; for  which 
purpose  it  is  said  to  be  much  preferable  either  to  the  haw- 


BUCKTHORN, 


67 


thorn  or  crab,  principally  on  account  of  its  being  entirely 
free  from  the  horer^  (an  insect  which  frequently  destroys 
the  hawthorn,)  as  well  as  all  other  annoyances  of  a similar 
nature.  A letter  from  Mr.  Derby  to  the  editor  of  the 
N.  E.  Farmer j published  in  that  paper,  vol.  iii.  p.  214,  con- 
tains the  following  notices  of  this  shrub  : — 

‘‘You  will  perceive  that  Miller  represents  it  as  a shrub 
growing  about  12  or  14  feet  high.  The  tree  from  which  my 
plants  were  raised,  formerly  stood  in  the  garden  of  the  ven- 
erable Dr.  Holyoke  of  this  place,  who  used  the  berries  for 
medicinal  purposes,  and  was  as  large  as  any  of  our  common 
apple-trees.  He  assures  me  he  was  induced  at  last  to  cut 
it  down,  as  it  shaded  so  much  of  his  garden.  I was  so 
pleased  with  the  healthy  and  clean  appearance  of  the  tree, 
and  the  next  spring  observing  several  young  plants  in  the 
adjoining  garden  belonging  to  my  brother,  raised  from  seed 
dropped  in  the  autumn,  that  I was  induced  to  transplant 
them  to  a nursery,  where  they  grew  with  great  rapidity. 

“ After  trying  several  kinds  of  trees,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  a hedge,  without  much  success,  I was  induced  to 
try  this,  which  has  afforded  a most  beautiful  fence,  so  much 
so  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  every  person  who  has  seen 
it.  It  divides  my  garden,  is  about  three  hundred  faet  in 
length,  the  plants  set  nearly  a foot  apart,  is  five  feet  high, 
and  two  feet  wide  at  top,  which  is  cut  nearly  level.  It 
shoots  early  in  the  spring,  makes  a handsome  appearance, 
and  continues  its  verdure  till  very  late  in  the  fall.  It  has 
not  so  much  spine  as  either  the  English  or  American  haw- 
thorn, but  I think  sufficient  to  protect  it  from  cattle.  The 
plant  bears  the  knife  or  shears  remarkably,  and  makes  as 
close  and  tight  a fence  as  either  of  the  others,  and  is  not 
subject  to  blight,  as  both  of  them  have  been  with  me.  You 
will  observe  that  Miller  speaks  of  it  as  not  so  proper  for 
hedges  as  the  hawthorn  or  crab,  which  may  be  the  case  in 
England,  but  I cannot  agree  with  him  as  it  respects  Amer- 
ica. 

“ The  tree  furnishes  a large  quantity  of  seed,which  rapidly 
vegetates ; and  I make  no  doubt  it  can  be  propagated  by 
cuttings,  which  mode  I shall  adopt  in  the  spring.” 

Propagation  and  culture, — “ The  purging  buckthorn  shrub 
is  so  common  in  the  hedges  of  many  parts  of  England,  that 
it  is  seldom  cultivated  in  gardens.  It  rises  easily  from 


JBUCKTHORI^ 


&9 

seeds,  if  they  are  sown  in  autumn  soon  after  the  berries  are 
ripe ; but  if  they  be  left  out  of  the  ground  till  spring,  the 
plants  will  not  come  up  till  the  year  after.  These  will  re- 
quire no  particular  treatment,  but  may  be  managed  in  the 
same  way  as  young  crabs,  or  any  other  hardy,  deciduous 
tree  or  shrub.  It  may  also  be  propagated  by  cuttings  or 
layers.  If  the  young  shoots  be  layed  in  autumn,  they  will 
put  out  roots  by  the  following  autumn,  when  they  may  be 
taken  off,  and  either  planted  in  a nursery,  to  get  strength 
for  a year  or  two,  or  where  they  are  desired  to  remain.” — 
Miller. 

Uses. — There  are  other  uses  to  which  this  shrub  may  be 
applied  besides  that  of  forming  hedges.  Goats,  sheep,  and 
horses  eat  the  leaves,  but  cows  refuse  them.  The  wood  is 
said  to  be  valuable  for  the  turner.  ^‘From  the  juice  of  the 
unripe  berries,  with  alum,  a yellow,  and  from  the  ripe  ones 
a fine  green  is  obtained ; the  bark  also  strikes  a yellow  and 
brown  red  colour.  The  juice  of  the  unripe  berries  is  of 
the  colour  of  saffron,  and  is  used  in  staining  maps  or  paper ; 
that  of  the  ripe  berries  is  the  sap  green  of  miniature  paint- 
ers, and  is  much  esteemed ; but  if  they  are  gathered  late  in 
autumn,  the  juice  is  purple.” — Dom.  Ency. 

A syrup  prepared  from  buckthorn  berries  has  been  used 
\n  medicine,  but  is  not  often  prescribed,  as  it  occasions 
much  sickness  and  griping.  In  a Latin  treatise,  published 
by  Dr.  J.  G.  Kolb,  of  Erlang,  in  Germany,  the  bark  of  the 
buckthorn  is  much  recommended  as  a mild,  cheap,  and  effi- 
cacious remedy,  in  every  respect  preferable  to  the  berries. 

Budding. — See  Inoculation,  in  the  alphabetical  order. 

CABBAGE  TRIBE.  The  cabbage  tribe  is  of  all  the 
classes  of  cultivated  culinary  vegetables  the  most  ancient, 
as  well  as  the  most  extensive.  The  hrassica  oleracea^  being 
extremely  liable  to  sport  or  run  into  varieties  and  monstrosi- 
ties, has,  in  the  course  of  time,  become  the  parent  of  a nume- 
rous race  of  culinary  productions,  so  very  various  in  their  hab- 
it and  appearance,  that  to  many  it  may  appear  not  a little  ex- 
travagant to  refer  them  to  the  same  origin.  Besides  the 
different  sorts  of  white  and  red  cabbage  and  Savoys,  which 
form  the  leaves  into  a head,  there  are  various  sorts  of 
borecolesy  which  grow  with  their  leaves  loose  in  the  natu- 
ral way,  and  there  are  several  kinds  of  cauliflower  and  broc- 
coli^ which  form  their  stalks  or  flower-buds  into  a head. 


CABBAGE. 


S9 


All  of  these,  with  the  turnip-rooted  cabbage  and  the  Brus- 
sels sprouts,  claim  a common  origin  from  the  single  species 
of  brassica  above  mentioned.  Cabbage  of  some  sort, 
White,  in  his  History  of  Selborne,  informs  us,  must  have 
been  known  to  the  Saxons ; for  they  named  the  month  of 
February  Sprout  kale.  Being  a favourite  with  the  Ro- 
mans, it  is  probable  that  the  Italian  cabbage  would  be  in- 
troduced at  an  early  period  into  South  Britain.  To  the 
inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  cabbages  were  first 
made  known  by  the  soldiers  of  the  enterprising  Cromwell, 
when  quartered  at  Inverness. — Edin.  Ency.  art.  Horticul- 
ture. 

CABBAGE. — Brassica  oleracea  capitata. — Among  the 
varieties  of  the  cabbage,  which  have  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  the  following  are  enumerated  in  Mr.  Russell’s 
Catalogue  : 


Early  Salisbury  dwarf, 

Early  York, 

Early  Dutch, 

Early  sugarloaf. 

Early  London  Battersea, 

Large  Bergen,  or  great  American, 
Early  emperor. 

Early  Wellington, 

Russian, 

Large  late  drumhead, 

Late  imperial. 


Late  sugarloaf. 

Large  green  glazed, 

Tree,  or  thousand-headed. 

Large  Scotch,/or  cattlef 
Green  globe  oavoy, 

Red  Dutch, /or  pickling f 
Large  cape  Savoy, 

Yellow  Savoy,  [ground) 

Turnip-rooted,  or  Arabian,  (above 
Turnip-rooted,  (below  ground) 

Chou  de  Milan. 


Soil  and  situation. — Every  variety  of  cabbage  grows  best 
in  a strong,  rich,  substantial  soil,  inclining  rather  to  clay 
than  sand  ; but  will  grow  in  any  soil,  if  it  be  well  worked, 
and  abundantly  manured  with  well  rotted  dung.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Loudon,  The  soil  for  seedlings  should  be  light, 
and,  excepting  for  early  sowings,  not  rich.  Where  market 
gardeners  raise  great  quantities  of  seedling  cabbages  to 
stand  the  winter,  and  to  be  sold  for  transplanting  in  the 
spring,  they  choose,  in  general,  the  poorest  and  stiffest  land 
they  have  got,  more  especially  in  Scotland,  where  large 
autumnal  sowings,  of  winter  drumhead  And  round  Scotch, 
are  annually  made,  and  where  the  stiffness  of  the  soil  gives 
a peculiar  firmness  of  texture  and  hardiness  of  constitution 
to  the  plants,  and  prevents  their  being  thrown  out  of  the 
soil  during  the  thaws  which  succeed  a frosty  winter. 
Transplanted  cabbages  require  a rich  mould,  rather  clayey 
than  sandy ; and,  as  Neill  and  Nicol  observe,  it  can  scarcely 


ro 


CABBAGE. 


be  too  much  manured,  as  they  are  an  exhausting  crop* 
Autumnal  plantations,  intended  to  stand  the  winter,  should 
have  a dry  soil,  well  dug  and  manured,  and  of  a favourable 
aspect.  The  cabbage,  whether  in  the  seed-bed  or  final 
plantation,  ever  requires  an  open  situation.  Under  the  drip 
of  trees,  or  in  the  shade,  seedlings  are  drawn  up  weak,  and 
grown  crops  are  meager,  w^orm-eaten  and  ill-favoured. 

Sowing  cabbage  seed, — M Mahon  says,  ‘‘  The  proper  pe- 
riod for  sowing  cabbage  in  the  Middle  States,  to  produce 
early  summer  cabbages,  is  between  the  sixth  and  the  tenth 
of  September,  if  intended  to  be  transplanted  into  frames  in 
October,  for  winter  protection,  which  is  the  preferable 
method ; but  if  they  are  designed  for  remaining  in  the  seed- 
beds till  spring,  the  period  is  between  the  fifteenth  and 
twentieth.  However,  it  will  be  very  proper  to  make  two 
or  three  sowings  within  that  time,  as  it  is  impossible  to  say 
whether  the  fall  may  be  favourable  or  otherwise,  and,  there- 
fore, the  better  way  is  to  be  prepared  in  either  case  by  suc- 
cessive crops. 

“ The  consequence  of  having  crops  too^ early  is,  that  they 
are  subject  to  run  to  seed  in  the  spring  soon  after  being 
planted  out ; and  if  the  seeds  are  sown  too  late,  the  plants 
do  not  acquire  sufficient  strength  before  winter  to  withstand 
its  rigour,  without  extraordinary  care.  But  in  either  case 
there  is  a remedy ; that  is,  if  the  plants  are  likely  to  become 
too  luxuriant  and  strong,  transplant  them  once  or  twice  in 
October,  and  if  too  backward  and  weakly,  make  a slight 
hot-bed  towards  the  latter  end  of  that  month,  and  prick 
them  out  of  the  seed-bed  thereon ; this  will  forward  them 
considerably.’’ 

Mr.  McMahon  thinks  that,  in  the  Eastern  States,  the 
fore  part  of  September  will  be  a suitable  time  to  sow  cab- 
bages intended  to  be  grown  the  succeeding  summer.  The 
seeds  should  be  covered  about  a quarter  of  an  inch  deep, 
and,  if  the  weather  prove  dry,  should  be  watered  occasion- 
ally in  the  evening  till  they  come  up.  According  to  Aber- 
crombie’s seed  estimate,  for  a seed-bed  to  raise  the  early 
York  and  similar  varieties,  four  feet  wide  by  twenty  in 
length,”  two  ounces  will  be  required ; for  a seed-bed  to 
raise  the  large  sugarloaf,  and  other  luxuriant  growers,  four 
feet  by  thirty-six  in  length,  two  ounces.  The  same  writer 
directs  to  sow  at  three  difierent  seasons,  that  is,  spring, 


CABBAGE. 


61 


summer  and  autumn,  and  cover  from  an  eighth  to  a quarter 
of  an  inch.  Under  a deficiency  of  winter  standing  young 
plants  for  final  transplanting  in  spring,  or  in  order  to  have 
some  spring  sown  plants  as  forward  as  possible,  a moderate 
portion  of  some  best  early  sorts  may  be  sown  between  the 
middle  of  February  and  the  middle  of  March,  in  a slight 
hot-bed  or  frame,  to  nurture  the  plants  till  the  leaves  are  an 
inch  or  two  in  length.  Then  prick  them  into  intermediate 
beds  in  the  open  garden,  there  to  gain  strength  for  final 
transplanting.” 

Planting  in  New  England. — Some  drop  the  seeds  where 
the  cabbages  are  to  grow.  By  this  they  escape  being  stint- 
ed by  transplanting  ; for  winter  cabbages,  the  latter  part 
of  May  is  early  enough  to  put  the  seed  into  the  ground, 
whether  the  plants  are  to  be  removed  or  not.  I have  tried 
both  ways,  and,  on  the  whole,  I prefer  transplanting.  They 
are  otherwise  apt  to  be  too  tall,  and  to  have  crooked  stems. 
Covering  plants  with  leaves  is  not  a good  practice.  They 
will  be  much  heated  through  some  sorts  of  leaves,  the  free 
circulation  of  air  about  them  will  be  prevented,  and  their 
perspiration  partly  obstructed.  If  a hot  sun  cause  them  to 
droop,  a shingle,  stuck  into  the  ground,  will  be  sufficient 
shelter,  if  it  be  on  the  south  side  of  the  plants.  I com- 
monly allow  each  plant  two  shingles,  one  on  the  south-east 
side,  and  one  on  the  south-west,  meeting  at  the  south  cor- 
ner.”— Deane. 

The  act  of  planting  should  be  performed  carefully. 
Holes,  of  sufficient  depth  and  width,  should  be  dibbled,  foi 
the  smaller  sorts  of  cabbages,  at  the  distance  of  two  feet 
and  a half,  and,  for  the  larger  sort,  of  three  feet  every  way. 
In  these  the  earth  should  be  placed  up  to  the  lower  leaves, 
and  the  earth  brought  closely  about  the  roots,  which  is 
best  done  by  pushing  down  the  dibbler,  at  a small  angle 
with  the  plant,  and  then  bringing  it  up  to  it  with  a jerk. 
This  leaves  no  chambering,  (as  gardeners  call  it,)  no  va- 
cancy between  the  plant  and  the  soil. 

“ The  state  of  the  weather,  when  these  operations  are 
performed,  is  not  a matter  of  indifference,  and  has  been  a 
subject  of  controversy ; some  recommending  dry  weather, 
others  wet.  As  in  many  other  cases  of  disputation,  the 
truth  lies  between  them — that  is,  moist  weather  is  neither 
dry  nor  wet,  and  is  precisely  that  which  is  best  for  setting 


62 


CABBAGE. 


out  cabbages,  or  any  other  vegetable.  We  ought  not, 
however,  to  wait  long  for  even  this  most  favourable  state 
of  the  atmosphere,  since,  with  a little  labour,  we  have  the 
means  of  making  up  for  its  absence.” — Armstrong. 

Dig  the  plants  up,  that  is,  loosen  the  ground  under 
them  with  a spade,  to  prevent  their  being  stripped  too  much 
of  their  roots.  The  setting  stick  should  be  the  upper  part 
of  a spade  or  shovel  handle.  The  eye  of  the  spade  is  the 
handle  of  the  stick.  From  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  to  the 
point  of  the  stick,  should  be  about  nine  inches  in  length. 
The  stick  should  not  be  tapering^  but  nearly  of  equal  thick- 
ness all  the  way  down  to  within  an  inch  and  a half  of  the 
point,  where  it  must  be  tapered  off  to  the  point.  If  the 
wood  be  cut  away,  all  round,  to  the  thickness  of  a dollar, 
and  iron  put  round  in  its  stead,  it  makes  a very  complete 
tool.  The  iron  becomes  bright,  and  the  earth  does  not 
adhere  to  it  as  it  does  to  wood.  Having  the  plant  in  one 
hand,  and  the  stick  in  the  other,  make  a hole  suitable  to 
the  root  that  it  is  to  receive.  Put  in  the  root  in  such  a 
way,  that  the  earth,  when  pressed  in,  will  be  on  a level 
with  the  but-ends  of  the  lower  or  outward  leaves  of  the 
plant.  Let  the  plant  be  rather  higher  than  lower  than  this ; 
for  care  must  be  taken  not  to  put  the  plant  so  low  as  for 
the  earth  to  fall,  or  be  washed  into  the  heart  of  the  plant, 
nor  even  into  the  inside  of  the  bottom  leaves.  The  stem 
of  a cabbage,  and  the  stems  of  all  the  cabbage  kind,  send 
out  roots  from  all  the  parts  of  them  that  are  put  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  It  is  good,  therefore,  to  plant 
as  deep  as  you  can  without  injury  to  the  leaves.  The  next 
consideration  is,  the  fastening  of  the  plant  in  the  ground. 
The  hole  is  made  deeper  than  the  length  of  the  root,  but 
the  root  should  not  be  bent,  at  the  point,  if  it  can  be  avoid- 
ed. Then,  while  one  hand  holds  the  plant,  with  its  root 
in  the  hole,  the  other  hand  applies  the  setting  stick  to  the 
earth  on  one  side  of  the  hole,  the  stick  being  held  in  such 
a way  as  to  form  a sharp  triangle  with  the  plant.  Then, 
pushing  the  stick  down,  so  that  its  point  go  a little  deeper 
than  the  point  of  the  root^  and  giving  it  a little  twisty  it  presses 
the  earth  against  the  point,  or  bottom  of  the  root.  And 
thus  all  is  safe,  and  the  plant  is  sure  to  grow.” — Cobhett. 

After-culture. — Little  more  is  necessary  than  to  stir  the 
ground  pretty  frequently,  and  keep  it  clear  of  weeds.  It 


cabbage:.  63 

is  recommended  to  hoe  the  ground  while  the  dew  is  on, 
once  a week,  till  they  begin  to  head. 

Diseases  and  insects. — Cabbages  are  liable  to  a disease  in 
the  roots,  in  which  they  become  swelled  and  knobby,  and 
the  plants  of  weak  and  imperfect  growth.  This  disorder  is 
called  stump  foot^  fumble  foot,  &c.  It  has  been  supposed  to 
be  caused  by  the  attacks  of  grubs,  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground ; and  the  disorder  is  said  to  be  chiefly  prevalent  where 
the  same  sorts  of  cabbages  have  been  raised  on  the  same 
ground  several  years  in  succession.  Lovet  Peters,  Esq. 
of  Westborough,  Mass.,  says,  the  cause  of  the  stump  foot, 
is  in  the  soil : — F ew  pieces  of  land,  I believe,  that  have 
been,  for  several  successive  years  under  the  plough,  will 
produce  a good  crop  of  cabbages,  though  there  may  be 
exceptions.  My  method  of  raising  them,  which  I have 
practised  several  years  with  complete  success,  is  the 
following : — In  the  spring,  take  a piece  of  green  sward, 
of  a good  soil,  and  free  from  stones,  and  turn  it  over  with 
the  plough  as  flat  as  possible  ; then  spread  on  a large  quan- 
tity of  good  manure  : if  it  has  been  previously  mixed  with 
leached  ashes,  the  better.  Then  harrow  greatly,  and  early 
in  June  : if  for  winter  cabbage,  cut  holes  through  the  turf, 
with  a hoe,  as  near  together  as  the  cabbages  ought  to  grow ; 
fill  the  holes  with  fine  earth  and  manure,  and  then  set  the 
plants,  or  put  in  a small  number  of  seeds : I prefer  the 
latter,  however,*  since  it  saves  the  labour  of  setting,  and 


* Cultivators  do  not  agree  on  the  subject  of  transplanting  cabbage  plants,  or 
sowing  the  seeds  in  the  spots  where  the  plants  are  to  grow.  Dr.  Deane,  as  has 
appeared  above,  after  having  tried  both  methods,  gave  the  preference  to 
transplanting.  Mr.  Peters,  we  have  seen,  prefers  the  other  mode.  Mr.  Bord- 
ley  relates  an  experiment,  in  which  he  compared  cabbages  transplanted  with 
others  not  once  moved.  The  unmoved  grew,  and  were  better  than  the  movedP 
Mr.  Cobbett  says,  to  have  fine  cabbages  of  any  sort,  they  must  be  trans- 
planted. First,  they  should  be  taken  from  the  seed-bed,  (where  they  have  been 
sown  in  beds  near  to  each  other,)  and  put  into  fresh  dug,  well-broken  ground, 
at  six  inches  apart,  every  way.  This  is  called  pricing  out.  By  standing 
here  about  fifteen  or  twenty  aays,  they  get  straight,  and  stand  strong,  erect, 
and  have  a straight  and  stout  stem.  Out  of  this  plantation  they  come  all 
of  a size ; the  roots  of  all  are  in  the  same  state,  and  they  strike  quicker  into 
the  ground  where  they  stand  for  a cr^.'^  According  to  Rees^  Cyclopedia^ 
it  was  the  practice  of  the  celebrated  Dakewell,  and  other  cultivators  who 
followed  his  example,  to  drill  cabbage  seed  where  the  plants  were  to  -re- 
main. Perhaps  there  would  be  no  necessity  for  transplanting  cabbages, 
in  order  to  make  the  stems  straight  and  stout,^^  according  to  Mr.  Cobbeit^s 
directions,  if  the  plants  were  not  originally  sown  too  thick,  or  were  proper- 
\y  thinned  at  an  early  period  of  their  growth.  An  English  writer  says, 
" Much  iiyury  frequently  arises  to  ^'oung  cabbage  plants,  from  the  seed  being 


04 


CABBAGE. 


is  mnch  surer  of  success,  if  it  happens  to  be  a time  of 
drought.  They  will  need  no  more  hoeing  than  is  necessa- 
ry to  keep  down  the  weeds.  In  this  way,  I have  raised 
cabbages  of  the  largest  size,  in  a green  sward  potato  field, 
without  more  hoeing  than  was  necessary  for  the  potatoes.” 

Cabbage  plants  are  liable  to  be  attacked,  by  a grub  or  black 
worm,  in  the  night,  which  eats  off  the  stalks,  just  above 
ground,  and  buries  itself  in  the  ground  as  soon  as  the  sun 
rises.  Dr.  Deane  observed,  that  a little  circle  of  lime  or  rock- 
weed  round  the  plant,  will  preserve  it,  and  recommends  dig- 
ging for  the  worm  near  the  place  which  shows  the  marks  of 
its  ravages,  and  destroying  it.  Scalding  the  hills  with  boiling 
water,  and  then  enclosing  them  with  boards,  barks,  or  shin- 
gles, would  be  an  effectual,  but  troublesome  mode,  of 
guarding  against  worms.  The  Economical  Journal  of  France 
gives  the  following  method,  which,  it  states,  is  infallible,  to 
guard  not  only  against  caterpillars,  but  all  other  insects 
which  infest  cabbages  or  other  vegetables  : — Sow  with 
hemp  all  the  borders  of  the  ground  where  the  cabbage  is 
planted  ; and,  although  the  neighbourhood  be  infested  with 
caterpillars,  the  place  enclosed  with  hemp  will  be  perfect- 
ly free,  and  not  one  of  the  vermin  will  approach  it.  Wa- 
tering the  plants  with  water  which  had  been  poured  boiling 
hot  on  elder  leaves,  or  walnut  leaves,  and  suffered  to  stand 
till  cool,  has  been  recommended.  The  following  mixture 
is  also  said  to  be  a preservative  against  all  kinds  of  insects : — 
Take  a pound  and  three  quarters  of  soap,  the  same  quanti- 
ty of  flowers  of  sulphur,  two  pounds  of  puff  balls,  and  fif- 
teen gallons  of  water.  When  the  whole  has  been  well 
mixed,  by  the  aid  of  a gentle  heat,  sprinkle  the  insects 
with  the  liquor,  and  it  will  instantly  kill  them.  To  get  rid 
of  the  aphides  or  cabbage  lice,  watering  the  plants  with 
soap-suds,  or  a solution  of  salt  in  water,  (not  too  strong, 
lest  it  kill  the  plants,)  is  said  to  be  efficient. 

Use.— The  culinary  uses  of  the  cabbage  are  too  well 
known  to  need  description  or  recapitulation.  If  they  grow 
near  a yard  where  cattle  are  kept,  the  under  leaves,  when 
they  begin  to  decay,  may  be  stripped  off  and  given  them. 

sown  too  thick ; care  should^  therefore,  be  taken,  to  have  them  properly  thinned 
out,  whenever  they  come  up  in  too  thick  a manner.  Probably,  if  the  plants 
were  sown  in  the  nills  in  which  they  are  intended  to  grow  for  a crop,  and  thin- 
ned out  in  due  season,  they  would  grow  as  straight  and  stout,  as  if  they  bad 
Iteen  several  times  transplanted.'^ 


CABBAGE. 


05 


Tlie  plants  will  not  be  injured,  and  they  are  an  excellent  food 
for  cattle,  and  will  much  increase  the  milk  of  cows.  But 
the  least  decayed  alone  should  be  given  to  cows,  lest  they 
give  the  milk  a bad  taste.  Much  account  is  made  of  cab- 
bages, in  England,  for  feeding  cattle  in  the  winter  ; but 
the  dilhculty  of  preserving  them  renders  them  less  valua- 
ble for  I hat  purpose  with  us.  Cabbages  are  also  eaten  by 
swine  and  horses,  and  are  thought  to  be  excellent  food  for 
ew^es  that  have  newly  dropped  their  lambs,  and  for  calves. 

Preserving  cabbages. — Mr.  McMahon  recommends  the 
following  method  for  preserving  cabbages  for  winter  and 
spring  use  : — “ Immediately  previous  to  the  setting  in  of 
hard  frost,  take  up  your  cabbages  and  Savoys,  observing  to 
do  it  in  a dry  day  ; turn  their  tops  downward,  and  let  them 
remain  so  for  a few  hours,  to  drain  off  any  w^ater  that  may 
be  lodged  between  their  leaves ; then  make  choice  of  a 
ridge  of  dry  earth,  in  a well-sheltered,  warm  exposure,  and 
plant  them  dowm  to  their  heads  therein,  close  to  one  anoth- 
er, having  previously  taken  off  some  of  their  loose,  hanging 
leaves.  Immediately  erect  over  them  a low,  temporary 
shed,  of  any  kind  that  will  keep  them  perfectly  free  from 
wet,  which  is  to  be  open  at  both  ends,  to  admit  a current 
of  air  in  mild,  dry  weather.  These  ends  are  to  be  closed 
with  straw  when  the  weather  is  very  severe.  Ii?  this  situa- 
tion, your  cabbages  wull  keep  in  a high  state  of  preservation 
till  spring ; for,  being  kept  perfectly  free  from  wet,  as  well 
as  from  the  acti6n  of  the  sun,  the  frost  will  have  little  or 
no  effect  upon  them.  In  such  a place  the  heads  may  be 
cut  off  as  wanted,  and  if  frozen,  soak  them  in  spring,  well, 
or  pump  water,  for  a few  hours  previous  to  their  being 
cooked,  which  ivill  dissolve  the  frost,  and  extract  any  disa- 
greeable taste  occasioned  thereby.” 

The  principal  gardener  in  the  Shaker  establishment,  in 
New  Lebanon,  Columbia  county,  N.  Y.  directs  not  to  pull 
up  cabbages  in  autumn,  till  there  is  danger  of  their  freez- 
ing too  fast  in  the  ground  to  be  got  up.  If  there  happens 
an  early  snow,  it  will  not  injure  them.  When  they  are 
removed  from  the  garden,  they  should  be  set  out  again  in 
a trench  dug  in  the  bottom  of  a cellar.  If  the  cellar  is 
pretty  cool,  it  will  be  the  better.” 

The  London  Monthly  Magazine  gives  the  following  meth- 
od, by  which  cabbages  may  be  preserved  on  board  ships, 
6 * 


66 


CABBAGE. 


&c. — The  cabbage  is  cut  so  as  to  leave  about  two.  inches 
or  more  of  the  stem  attached  to  it ; after  which  the  pith  is 
scooped  out  to  about  the  depth'  of  an  inch,  care  being  taken 
not  to  wound  or  bruise  the  rind  by  this  operation.  The 
cabbages  then  are  suspended  by  means  of  a cord,  tied  round 
that  portion  of  the  stem  next  the  cabbage,  and  fastened  at 
regular  intervals  to  a rope  across  the  deck.  That  portion 
of  the  stem  from  which  the  pith  is  taken,  being  uppermost, 
is  regularly  filled  with  water.” 

To  save  cabbage  seed, — The  raising  of  the  seed  of  the 
different  sorts  of  cabbage,  Neill  observes,  affords  employ- 
ment to  many  persons  in  various  parts  of  England.  It  is 
well  known  that  no  plants  are  more  liable  to  be  spoiled  by 
cross  breeds,  than  the  cabbage  tribe,  unless  the  plants  of 
any  particular  variety,  when  in  flower,  be  kept  at  a very 
considerable  distance  from  any  other;  also  in  flower, 
bees  are  extremely  apt  to  carry  the  pollen  of  the  one  to  the 
other,  and  produce  confusion  in  the  progeny.  Market  gar- 
deners, and  many  private  individuals,  raise  seed  for  their 
own  use.  Some  of  the  handsomest  cabbages  of  the  differ- 
ent sorts  are  dug  up  in  autumn,  and  sunk  in  the  ground  to 
the  head  ; early  next  summer  a flower-stem  appears,  which 
is  followed  by  abundance  of  seed.  A few  of  the  soundest 
and  healthiest  cabbage-stalks,  furnished  with‘  sprouts,  an- 
swer the  same  end.  When  the  seed  has  been  well  ripened 
and  dried,  it  will  keep  for  six  or  eight  years.  It  is  mention- 
ed by  Bastien,  that  the  seed-growers  of  Aubervilliers  have 
learned  by  experience,  that  seed  gathered  from  the  middle 
flower-stem  produces  plants,  which  will  be  fit  for  use  a 
fortnight  earlier  than  those  from  the  seed  of  the  lateral 
flower  stem ; this  may  deserve  the  attention  of  the  watch- 
ful gardener,  and  assist  him  in  regulating  his  successive 
crops  of  the  same  kind  of  cabbage.” — Loudon. 

Field  culture. — The  variety  cultivated  in  the  fields  for  cat- 
tle is  almost  exclusively  the  large  Scotch,  or  field  cabbage. 
The  land  is  prepared  the  same  way  as  for  other  hoed  crops. 
“ The  preparation  given  to  the  plants,”  says  Loudon,  ‘‘  con- 
sists in  pinching  off  the  extremity  of  their  tap-root,  and 
any  tubercles  which  appear  on  the  root  or  stem,  and  in  im- 
mersing the  root  and  stem  in  a puddle  or  mixture  of  earth 
and  w^ater,  to  protect  the  fibres  and  pores  of  the  roots  and 
stem  from  drought.  The  plants  may  then  be  inserted  by 


CANKER-WORM. CARAWAY. CARDOON. 


67 


the  dibber,  taking  care  not  to  plant  too  deep,  and  to  press 
the  earth  lirmly  to  the  lower  extremity  of  the  root.  If  this 
last  point  is  not  attended  to,  the  plants  will  either  die,  or,  if 
kept  alive  by  the  moisture  of  the  soil,  or  rain,  their  progress 
will  be  very  slow.  When  the  distance  between  the  ridg- 
lets  [or  rows]  is  twenty-seven  inches,  the  plants  are  set  about 
two  feet  asunder  in  the  rows,  and  the  quantity  required  for 
an  acre  is  about  6000  plants.”  The  after-culture,  preser- 
vation, uses,  &c.,  have  been  sufficiently  detailed  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  under  this  head. 

CANKER-WORM,— Insects. 

CARAWAY. — Carum  caruL — “The  caraway  is  a bien- 
nial plant,  a native  of  England,  being  occasionally  found  in 
meadows  and  pastures.  It  rises  a foot  and  a half  high,  with 
spreading  branches ; the  leaves  are  decompound  ; the  leaf- 
lets in  sixes ; it  produces  umbels  of  white  flowers  in  June. 

“ Use, — The  plant  is  cultivated  chiefly  for  the  seed,  which 
is  used  in  confectionary  and  in  medicine.  In  spring,  the 
under  leaves  are  sometimes  put  in  soups ; and  in  former 
times  the  fusiform  roots  were  eaten  as  parsnips,  to  which 
Parkinson  gives  them  the  preference.  In  Essex,  large 
quantities  of  the  seed  are  annually  raised  for  distillation  with 
spirituous  liquors. 

“ Culture, — It  is  raised  from  seed,  of  which  a quarter  of  an 
ounce  is  sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  by  five.  Sow 
annually,  in  autumn,  soon  after  the  seed  is  ripe : the  seed- 
lings will  rise  quickly,  and  should  be  thinned  to  a foot’s  dis- 
tance each  way.  In  default  of  sowing  in  autumn,  sow  in 
March  or  April,  either  in  drills  or  broad-cast ; but  the  plants, 
so  raised,  will  not  in  general  flower  till  the  following  year. 
When  the  seed  is  ripe,  the  plant  is  generally  pulled  up  in 
gathering,  especially  in  field  culture.” — Loudon, 

CARDOON. — Cynara  cardunculus, — The  cardoon  is  a 
hardy,  perennial  plant,  a native  of  Candia,  introduced  into 
England  in  1658.  It  is  a species  of  artichoke,  and  grows 
wild  in  the  south  of  France. 

Propagation, — “ Though  a perennial,  it  often  dies  in  the 
winter,  and  therefore  requires  to  be  raised  from  seed  almost 
every  year ; and,  for  a bed  four  feet  wide  by  eight  feet,  two 
ounces  are  sufficient.  Formerly  the  plants  were  raised  on  hot- 
beds, and  transplanted  in  May  and  June,  but  now  the  seed  is 
generally  sown  where  the  plants  are  to  remain.” — Loudon, 


68 


CARROT. 


Use. — The  parts  of  the  cardoon  that  are  eaten  are  not 
those  belonging  immediately  to  the  tiower,  as  of  the  arti- 
choke, but  the  roots,  stalks,  and  middle  ribs  of  the  leaves* 
and  chiefly  the  latter,  which  are  thick  and  crisp.  But  as 
all  these  are  naturally  bitter,  the  plants  are  blanched  by  being 
tied  up  like  lettuces,  about  the  month  of  September,  and 
having  earth  thrown  upon  their  lower  parts  to  the  depth  of 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet.  Cardoons  come  into  season 
about  the  end  of  November ; and  are  either  eaten  alone,  or 
as  a sauce  to  animal  food,  particularly  roast  meat ; or  are 
introduced  as  a dish  in  the  second  course.” — Loudon. 

CARROT. — Baucus. — This  plant  is  said  to  be  a native 
of  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  still  found  growing  wild.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  the  carrot;  and  the  following  are 
the  finest  sorts  enumerated  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  : 


Altrlngham,  (a  superior  sort;) 
Early  horn, 

Cremer,  (fine  for  the  table,) 


Lemon, 

Long  orange. 
Blood  red. 


Soil. — The  carrot  requires  a light,  mellow  soil,  mixed 
with  sand,  and  should  be  dug  or  trenched  one  or  two  spades 
deep,  breaking  well  all  the  lumpy  parts,  so  as  to  form  a 
porous  bed,  and  an  even  surface.  The  orange  and  red 
sorts,  on  account  of  their  longer  roots,  require  a soil  pro- 
portionably  deeper  than  the  horn.” 

Seed  estimate  and  sowing. — The  seeds  have  numerous 
forked  hairs  on  their  borders,  by  which  they  adhere  together, 
and  therefore  should,  previously  to  sov/ing,  be  rubbed  be- 
tween the  hands,  and  mixed  with  dry  sand,  in  order  to  sepa- 
rate them  as  much  as  possible.  They  are  also  very  light, 
and  therefore  a calm  day  must  be  chosen  for  sowing ; and 
the  seeds  should  he  disseminated  equally,  and  trodden  in 
before  raking.  Previously  to  sowing,  if  convenient,  the 
seed  should  be  proven,  by  sowing  a few  in  a pot,  and  placing 
it  in  a hot-bed  or  hot-house,  as  it  is  more  frequently  bad 
than  most  seeds.  For  a bed  4^  feet  by  30,  one  ounce  v/ill 
be  requisite,  and  the  same  for  150  feet  of  drill  row.  Dr. 
Deane  advises  to  sow  carrots  in  drills  from  9 to  12  inches 
apart,  across  beds  4 feet  wide,  McMahon  directs  to  sow 
thin  in  drills,  distant  from  each  other  from  8 to  10  inches, 
and  to  thin  them  to  3 inches,  plant  from  plant,  in  the  rows. 
To  save  seed. --Plant  some  largest,  best  roots  early  in  the 
spring,  two  feet  apart ; insert  them  a few  inches  over  the 


CARROT. 


69 


crowns.  They  will  yield  ripe  seed  in  autumn,  of  which 
gather  only  from  the  principal  umbel,  which  is  likely  not 
only  to  afford  the  ripest  and  largest  seed,  but  the  most  vigo- 
rous plants. 

Field  culture. — ‘‘  The  only  sort  of  carrot  adapted  to  field 
culture,”  says  Loudon,  “ is  the  long  red,  or  field  carrot. 
New  seed  is  most  essential,  as  it  will  not  vegetate  the  sec- 
ond year.  The  best  soil  for  the  carrot  is  a deep,  rich, 
sandy  loam ; such  a soil  ought  to  be  at  least  a foot  deep, 
and  all  equally  good  from  top  to  bottom.  On  any  other 
the  field  culture  of  the  carrot  will  not  answer. 

‘‘  The  usual  preparation  of  the  seed  for  sowing  is  the 
mixing  it  with  earth  or  sand,  to  cause  it  to  separate  more 
freely ; but  Burrows  adds  water,  turns  over  the  mixture 
of  seeds  and  moist  earth  several  times,  and  thus  brings  it 
to  the  point  of  vegetating  before  he  sows  it.  Having 
weighed  the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown,  and  collected 
sand  or  fine  mould,  in  the  proportion  of  about  two  bushels 
to  an  acre,  I mix  the  seed  with  the  sand  or  mould,  eight  or 
ten  pounds  to  every  two  bushels,  and  this  is  done  about  a 
fortnight  or  three  weeks  before  the  time  I intend  sowing ; 
taking  care  to  have  the  heaps  turned  over  every  day,  sprin- 
kling the  outside  of  them  with  water  each  time  of  turning 
over,  that  every  part  of  the  sand  heaps  may  be  equally  moist, 
and  that  vegetation  may  take  place  alike  throughout.  I 
have  great  advantage  in  preparing  the  seed  so  long  before 
hand  ; it  is  by  this  means  in  a state  of  forward  vegetation, 
therefore  lies  but  a short  time  in  the  ground,  and,  by  quickly 
appearing  above  ground,  is  more  able  to  contend  with  those 
numerous  tribes  of  weeds  in  the  soil,  whose  seeds  are  of 
quicker  vegetation.” 

The  quantity  of  seed,  when  carrots  are  sown  in  rows,  is 
two  pounds  per  acre;  and,  for  broad-cast  sowing,  five 
pounds.  The  rows  for  the  larger  or  proper  field  carrots, 
should  be  from  14  to  16  or  18  inches  apart ; and  the  carrots 
thinned,  in  hoeing,  to  3 or  4 inches  apart  in  the  rows.  The 
seeds  will  do  best  when  sown  by  hand,  as  their  shape  does 
not  well  admit  of  their  being  sown  by  machines.  Loudon 
says,  It  has  been  advised,  by  an  intelligent  cultivator,  to 
deposit  the  seed  to  the  depth  of  one  inch  in  the  rows,  leav- 
ing the  spaces  of  fourteen  inches  between  them  as  intervals ; 
the  seed,  in  these  cases,  being  previously  steeped  in  rain 


70 


CARROT, 


water  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  left  to  sprout,  after  which 
it  is  mixed  with  saw-dust  and  dry  mould,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  peck  and  a half  of  each  to  a pound  of  seed.  The 
land  is  afterwards  lightly  harrowed  over  once  in  a place. 
Two  pounds  of  seed,  in  this  mode,  is  found,  as  has  been 
observed,  sufficient  for  an  acre  of  land.” 

After-culture. — The  first  hoeing  of  carrots  must  be  by 
hand — an  operation  which  requires  a great  deal  of  attention, 
as  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  and  separate  the  weeds  from 
the  young  carrots.  Loudon  says,  “ From  eight  to  fifteen 
or  eighteen  inches,  each  way,  is  the  common  distance  at 
which  they  are  allowed  to  stand ; and  it  has  been  proved, 
from  many  years’  experience  in  districts  where  they  are 
most  cultivated,  that  carrots  which  grow  at  such  distances 
always  prove  a more  abundant  crop  than  when  the  plants 
are  allowed  to  stand  closer  together.”  Deane  observed. 
It  is  not  amiss  if  they  grow  large  and  rank,  when  they 
are  chiefly  designed  as  food  for  cattle,  though  small-sized 
ones  are  preferred  for  the  table.” 

Mr.  Quincy  gives  the  following  statement  of  the  mode 
of  cultivating  carrots,  made  use  of  by  Samuel  Wyllys  Pome- 
roy, Esq.,  and  which  he  prefers  to  all  others  : — 

‘‘  Plough  as  deep  in  the  fall  or  spring  as  the  state  of  the 
land  will  permit.  Cross-plough  in  the  spring,  and  harrow 
level.  Put  on  fifteen,  twenty,  or  twenty-five  buck-loads 
of  the  most  rotten  compost  to  the  acre,  as  the  heart  of  the 
land  may  be.  Spread  and  harrow  it  fine.  Then,  with  a 
horse-plough,  strike  it  into  two-bout  ridges,  as  near  together 
as  four  back  furrows  will  make  them,  and  if  the  two  first 
back  furrows  are  narrow,  the  other  two  being  deep,  the 
ridge  will  be  nearly  to  a point,  and  should  be  eighteen  or 
twenty  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  if  it  be  well 
cleared  out.  To  do  which,  make  another  bout  in  the  fur- 
row, if  necessary.  Then,  with  the  head  of  a rake,  strike  off 
the  crown  of  the  ridge,  till  it  is  three  or  four  inches  wide, 
and  with  it,  or  a hoe,  open  a drill  in  the  usual  manner.  Sow 
the  seed  pretty  thick,  cover  and  press  down  a little  with  a 
hoe  or  shovel.  When  the  weeds  appear,  run  a small 
plough  through  the  furrows.  Hand-weed  the  crop,  and  hoe 
the  weeds  from  the  sides  of  the  ridge.  The  orange  carrot 
is  best.” 

In  hai vesting,  a plough  with  one  yoke  of  oxen  should 


CARROT. 


71 


be  run  near  the  side  of  tlie  range  of  carrots,  and  as  deep  as 
possible.  This  loosens  the  dirt,  and  clears  one  side  of  the 
carrots  almost  entirely  from  the  earth.  The  labourers  then, 
with  great  facility,  take  them  by  their  tops  out  of  the  beds, 
and  throw  them  into  carts,  with  only  an  occasional  use  of 
the  hoe  to  plants  which  the  plough  has  not  loosened. 

I have  no  question  that,  conducted  in  this  mode,  a car- 
rot crop  may  be  made  more  productive,  and  much  less  ex- 
pensive, than  the  potato  crop  usually  is.  In  sowing,  I use 
a small  hand-drill,  which  lays  the  seed  with  great  regularity — 
a circumstance  very  important  both  to  facilitate  weeding  and 
harvesting ; since,  if  the  carrots  stand  straggling,  and  not  in 
a line,  the  plough,  when  harvesting,  leaves  the  more  to  be 
loosened  by  the  hoe  or  the  fork.” — Massachusetts  Agricultural 
Repository^  vol.  iv.  p.  24. 

A mode  of  cultivating  carrots,  differing  slightly  from  the 
above,  is  described  by  Mr.  Quincy,  in  the  same  work,  vol. 
iv.  p.  212. 

For  other  modes  of  cultivating  this  root,  see  Mass.  Agr. 
Rep.  vol.  V.  pp.  20,  255,  347. 

Use. — Horses  are  remarkably  fond  of  carrots,  and  it  is 
even  said,  that,  when  oats  and  carrots  are  given  together, 
the  horses  leave  the  oats,  and  eat  the  carrots.  The  ordinary 
allowance  is  about  forty  or  fifty  pounds  a day  to  each  horse. 
Carrots,  when  mixed  with  chaff,  that  is,  cut  straw,  and  a 
little  hay,  without  corn,  keep  horses  in  excellent  condition 
for  performing  all  kinds  of  ordinary  labour. 

“In  comparing  the  carrot  with  the  potato,  an  additional 
circumstance  greatly  in  favour  of  the  former  is,  that  it  does 
not  require  to  be  steamed  or  boiled,  and  it  is  not  more  dif- 
ficult to  wash  than  the  potato.  These  and  other  circum- 
stances considered,  it  appears  to  be  the  most  valuable  of  all 
roots  for  working  horses. 

“ The  use  of  the  carrot  in  domestic  economy  is  well 
known.  Their  produce  of  nutritive  matter,  as  ascertained 
by  Sir  H.  Davy,  is  ninety-eight  parts  in  one  thousand ; of 
which  three  are  starch,  and  ninety-five  sugar.  They  are 
used  in  the  dairy  in  winter  and  spring  to  give  colour  and 
flavour  to  butter.  In  the  distillery,  owing  to  the  great  pro- 
portion of  sugar  in  their  composition,  they  yield  more  spirit 
than  the  potato  ; the  usual  quantity  is  twelve  gallons  per 


72 


CATERPILLAR. CAULIFLOWER. 


ton.  They  are  excellent  in  soups,  stews,  and  haricots,  and 
boiled  whole  with  salt  beef. 

The  diseases  of  carrots  are  only  such  as  are  common 
to  most  plants,  such  as  mildew,  insects,  &c.  The  mildew 
and  worms  at  the  root  frequently  injure  crops,  and  are  to  be 
guarded  against,  as  far  as  practicable,  by  a proper  choice, 
soil,  season  of  sowing,  and  after-culture.” — Loudon. 

CATERPILLAR — an  insect  on  fruit  trees. — See  In- 
sects. 

CAULIFLOWER. — Brassica  oleracea.  var.  hotrytis. — 
The  cauliflower  is  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  curious  of 
the  whole  of  the  brassica  tribe ; the  flow^er  buds  forming  a 
close,  firm  cluster  or  head,  white  and  delicate,  for  the  sake 
of  which  the  plant  is  cultivated. 

Varieties. — ^Early,  (for  the  first,  early  crops.) — Later,  or  large,  (for  principal 
crops.) 

^‘Propagation  and  soil. — The  cauliflower  is  raised  from 
seed,  of  which  half  an  ounce  is  sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four 
feet  and  a half  wide,  by  ten  in  length.  The  soil  for  the  seed- 
bed may  be  light,  but,  for  final  transplanting,  it  can  hardly 
be  too  rich,  the  cauliflower,  like  the  vine,  being  reputed  a 
‘ rough  feeder.’  Cleanings  of  streets,  sesspools,  &c.,  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  liberally  supplied  during  the  growth  of  the 
plants,  when  very  large  heads  are  desired. 

“ Times  of  sowing. — The  early  and  main  superior  crop, 
brought  to  fruit  by  the  longest  nursery  attendaijce  ; the  late 
summer  succession  crop,  raised  by  the  shortest  course ; and 
the  Michaelmas  (29th  of  Sept.)  crop,  obtained  at  the  least 
expense,  are  sown,  respectively,  at  three  different  seasons. 
The  principal  sowing  is  made  about  the  end  of  the  third 
week  in  August,  or  a day  or  two  before  or  after  the  21st,  to 
raise  plants  to  stand  over  winter,  under  frames,  hand-glasses, 
or  half-sheltered  warm  borders,  for  the  early  and  main  supe- 
rior crops  next  summer.  A secondary  sowing  in  F ebruary  or 
March,  for  succession,  and  late  inferior  crops  the  same  year 
in  summer  and  autumn.  A final  sowing,  near  the  close  of 
May,  for  ordinary  crops,  to  yield  fruit  the  following  autumn 
and  winter.  The  seedlings,  protected  with  glass  frames, 
generally  grow  too  gross  in  the  stems,  which  become  partly 
blackened,  and  the  plants,  being  thus  unhealthy,  are  not  fit 
for  planting  out.  Late-raised  seedlings,  which  spend  the 
winter  in  the  open  border,  uniformly  become  the  large  and 


CAULIFLOWER. 


73 


finest  table  cauliflowers  during  the  summer,  though  they 
certainly  do  not  come  in  quite  so  early.  Cauliflower  plants, 
it  is  probable,  are  often  killed  with  too  much  attention. 
Seedlings,  raised  late  in  autumn,  seem  to  be  very  tenacious 
of  life.” — Ceiled.  Hort.  Mem.  iii.  192.  A method  of  pro- 
ducing cauliflowers,  pretty  early,  and  with  great  certainty, 
is  this  : — The  plants  are  set  in  small  pots  in  the  winter 
season,  and  kept  in  any  convenient  part  of  the  floor  of  m 
vinery  or  other  glazed  house.  In  the  beginning  of  March, 
they  are  taken  out  of  the  pots  with  the  ball  of  earth  attach- 
ed, and  planted  in  the  open  ground.  If  they  be  here  pro- 
tected against  severe  frosts  with  bell-glass  covers,  they 
come  into  head  in  the  course  of  April,  if  the  weather 
prove  favourable,” — Neill j in  Edin.  Encyc. 

Drummond,  of  the  Cork  botanic  garden,  protects  cauli- 
flower plants  during  winter  by  planting  them  in  excar 
vations  made  in  the  common  soil  of  the  garden,  and  covered 
with  frames  thatched  with  long,  straight  wheat  st^aw^  He 
uncovers  constantly,  in  mild  weather,  whether  nights  or 
days. — Hort.  Trans,  v.  369, 

For  after-culture,  preservation  through  winter,  saving 
seed,  &c.  proceed  as  with  the  common  white  cabbage. 

Use. — Among  the  succulent  plants  produced  in  our 
climate,  this  doubtless  is  one  of  the  most  nourishing,  and 
likewise  the  best  adapted  to  tender  organs  of  digestion, 
especially  in  valetudinarians  and  invalids : such  persons, 
ho^vever,  ought  to  eat  it  with  the  addition  of  some  aromatic 
spice,  such  as  pounded  cardamoma,  or  caraway,  or  a small 
proportion  of  bread.  To  make  the  cauliflower  blanch 
handsomely,  the  gardeners  tie  over  the  heads  of  the  plant 
To  prepare  cauliflowers. — Let  the  cauliflowers  first  be 
parboiled ; next  they  must  be  immersed  in  cold,  hard  water, 
for  some  time,  till  they  be  nearly  wanted  for  the  table;  thus, 
on  being  boiled  for  a few  minutes,  they  will  become  more 
firm  and  crisp  than  if  cooked  in  the  usual  manner.” — Dom. 
Encyc. 

Neill  (in  Edinburgh  Encyc.)  observes,  These  heads  or 
flowers  being  boiled,  generally  wrapped  in  a clean  linen 
cloth,  are  served  up  as  a most  delicate  vegetable  dish. 
Cauliflower  is  a particular  favourite  in  this  country.  ^ Of 
all  the  flowers  in  the  garden,’  Dr.  Johnson  used  to  say, 

^ I like  the  cauliflower.’  For  the  early  supply  of  the 
London  market,  very  great  quantities  of  cauliflower  are 
fostered  under  hand-glasses  during  winter  and  the  first  part 
7 


74 


CELERY. 


of  spring  ; and  to  behold  some  acres  overspread  with  such 
glasses,  gives  the  stranger  a forcible  idea  of  the  riches  and 
luxury  of  the  metropolis.” 

CELERY. — Apium  graveolens. — Celery  is  a hardy  bien- 
nial plant,  a native  of  Great  Britain,  and,  when  in  its  wild 
state,  it  is  denominated  smallage.  The  root,  in  its  wild 
state,  is  thick  and  fibrous.  The  stalk  is  bushy  and  furrow- 
ed, and  attains  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet.  The  leaves 
are  wedge-shaped,  and  the  flowers  yellow,'  which  are  pro- 
duced in  August.  The  varieties  usually  cultivated  are,  the 

White  solid,  I Italiap,  and 

Rose-coloured  solid,  | Celeriac,  or  turnip-rooted. 

Propagation,^ — ^All  the  sorts  are  raised  from  seed ; and 
half  an  ounce  is  reckoned  sufficient  for  a seed-bed  four  feet 
and  a half  wide  by  ten  feet  in  length,  of  the  upright  sorts ; 
but  for  celeriac,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  will  be  enough  for  a 
bed  four  feet  square. 

Soil, — Celery  delights  in  a soil  rather  moist,  rich  in  ve- 
getable mould,  but  not  rank  from  new,  unrotted  dung. 

Times  of  sowing, — “ The  most  forward  crop  is  slightTy 
forced ; any  of  the  varieties  may  be  sown  in  the  spring,  in 
the  open  garden,  at  two  of  three  different  times,  from  the 
21st  of  March  till  the  first  week  in  May ; but  the  principal 
sowing  should  be  made  in  the  first  fortnight  in  April.  Sow 
in  beds  of  light  mellow  earth,  and  rake  in  the  seed  lightly 
and  regularly.  In  very  dry  weather,  give  moderate  water- 
ing both  before  and  after  the  plants  come  up.  When  they 
are  two,  three,  or  four  inches  high,  thin  the  seed-bed,  and 
prick  out  a quantity,  at  successive  times,  into  intermediate 
beds,  three  or  four  inches  asunder.  Water  those  removed 
until  they  have  struck”  [tahm  root,']— Loudon, 

Transplanting  into  trendies,— When  either  the  plants 
left  in  the  seed-bed,  of  those  removed,  are  from  six  to 
twelve  inches  high,  of  when  the  latter  have  acquired  a 
stocky  growth,  by  four  or  five  weeks’  nurture  in  the  inter- 
mediate bed,  transplant  them  into  trenches  for  blanching. 
For  this  purpose,  allot  an  open  compartment.  Mark  out 
the  trenches  a foot  wide,  and  from  three  to  three  and  a 
lialf  distance ; dig  out  each  trench  lengthwise,  ten  or  twelve 
inches  in  width,  and  a light  spit  deep,  that  is,  six  or  eight 
inches.  Lay  the  earth  dug  out  equally  on  each  side  of  the 
trench ; put  about  three  inches  of  very  rotten  dung  into 
the  trench,  then  pare  the  sides,  and  dig  the  dung  and  par- 
ings with  an  inch  or  two  of  the  loose  mould  at  the  bottom. 


CELERY. 


75 


Trim  the  tops  and  roots  of  the  plants,  and  then  set  them  in 
single  rows  along  the  middle  of  each  trench,  allowing  four 
or  live  inches  distance  from  plant  to  plant.  When  this 
work  is  linished,  give  the  plants  water  in  plenty,  and  occa- 
sionally water  them  from  time  to  time,  if  the  weather  be 
dry,  and  likewise  let  them  be  shaded,  till  they  strike  root, 
and  begin  to  grow.  When  they  have  grown  to  the  height 
of  eight  or  ten  inches,  draw  earth  to  each  side  of  them, 
breaking  it  fine.  This  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  be- 
ing careful  not  to  bury  the  hearts.  Repeat  the  earthing 
once  in  ten  days,  till  the  plants  are  fit  for  use.  Be  careful, 
liowever,  not  to  draw  up  too  much  earth  to  the  plants  at 
first,  lest  they  be  smothered,  and  leave  the  plants  in  a 
little  hollow,  that  they  may  receive  the  fq.!!  benefit  of  the 
waterings,  rain,  &c.” 

Taking  the  crop.—^\i  is  best  to  begin  at  one  end  of  a row, 
and  dig  clean  down  to  the  roots,  which  then  loosen  with  a 
spade,  and  they  may  be  drawn  up  entire,  without  breaking 
the  stalks. 

To  preserve  this  plant  during  the  winter,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  frost,  take  up  a part  of  the  crop,  and  lay  it  under 
sand  for  winter  use.  Those  left  in  the  beds  may  be  cover- 
ed with  litter,  to  be  removed  in  mild  weather.  Cobbett 
directs,  to  preserve  celery  in  beds,  as  follows  : — “ Two 
boards,  a foot  wide  each,  their  edges  on  one  side  laid  upon 
the  earth  of  the  ridg^  formed  into  a roof  aver  the  point  of 
the  ridge,  the  upper  edge  of  one  board  going  an  inch  over 
the  upper  edge  of  the  other,  and  the  boards  fastened  well 
with  pegs,  will  do  the  business  completely ; for  it  is  not  the 
frost,  but  the  occasional  tkaws^  that  you  have  to  fear,  and 
the  wet  and  rot  that  they  produce.” 

To  sane  seed. — Either  leave  some  established  plants  in 
the  spring  where  growing,  or  in  March,  as  soon  as  the  frost 
will  permit,  set  the  plants  in  the  ground,  full  two  feet  asun- 
der. 

Cvltivallon  of  celeriac. — The  times  of  sowing  are  the 
same  as  for  the  other  sorts.  In  the  beginning  or  middle  of 
June,  they  are  transplanted  into  a flat  bed  in  the  open  air, 
at  the  distance  of  fifteen  inches  from  each  other,  and  not 
in  trenches,  like  other  celery.  They  must  be  abundant- 
ly watered  as  soon  as  they  are  set  out,  and  the  watering 
must  be  repeated  every  other  day,  or,  if  the  weather  should 
be  warm,  every  day.  As  they  increase  in  size,  they  will 
require  a greater  quantity  of  water,  and  they  must  be  OCCa^ 


76 


CHAMOMILE. 


sionally  hoed.  The  roots  will  be  fit  for  use  in  Septembet 
or  October.  Sabine  states,  that  he  has  been  informed  that 
the  plan  of  giving  excess  (k  water  is  peculiar  to  this  plant, 
and  that  its  vigorous  growth  is  more  dependent  on  richness 
of  soil  than  any  other  cause.  Abercombie  directs  to  earth 
up  the  bulbs  four  or  five  inches,  after  they  are  full  grown, 
in  order  to  blanch  them. 

‘‘  Use. — The  blanched  leafed-stalks  are  used  raw,  as  a sal- 
ad, from  August  till  March  ; they  are  also  stewed,  and  put 
in  soups.  In  Italy,  the  unblanched  leaves  are  used  for 
soups,  and  when  neither  the  blanched  nor  the  green  leaves 
can  be  had,  the  seeds  bruised  form  a good  substitute.  The 
root  only  of  the  variety  called  the  celeriac  is  used,  and  Sabine 
informs  us  (Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii.)  ‘it  is  excellent  in  soups, 
in  which,  whether  white  or  brown,  slices  of  it  are  used  as 
ingredients,  and  readily  impart  their  flavour.  With  the  Ger- 
mans, it  is  also  a common  salad,  for  which  the  roots  are 
prepared  by  boiling,  until  a fork  will  pass  easily  through 
them  : after  they  are  boiled,  and  become  cold,  they  are 
eaten  with  oil  and  vinegar.  They  are  also  sometimes  serv- 
ed up  at  table,  stewed  with  rich  sauces.  In  all  cases,  before 
they  are  boiled,  the  coat  and  the  fibres  of  the  roots,  which 
are  very  strong,  are  cut  away ; and  the  root  is  put  in  cold 
water,  on  the  fire,  not  in  water  previously  boiling.^ — 
Loudon. 

CHAMOMILE. — Anthemis  nobilis. 

Varieties. — These  are  the  common  single  and  double- 
flowered. 

Soil  and  culture^ — ^This  herb  delights  in  a poor,  sandy 
soil.  “ Both  kinds  are  propagated  by  parting  the  roots,  or 
by  slips  of  the  rooted  offsets  or  of  the  runners.  Detach 
them  with  roots  in  little  tufty  sets  in  March,  April  or  May, 
and  plant  them  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  giving 
water.  The  flowers  should  be  gathered  in  their  prime,  in 
June  or  July,  just  when  full-blown.  Let  them  be  spread 
to  dry  in  a shady  place ; then  put  them  into  paper  bags, 
and  house  them  for  use.” — Abercrombie. 

“ Use. — It  is  cultivated  on  account  of  the  flower,  which-is 
a safe  bitter  and  stomachic,  and  much  used  under  the  name 
of  chamomile-tea.  The  double-flowering  variety,  though 
more  beautiful  than  the  single-flowered,  is  less  useful ; the 
aromatic  principle  not  residing  in  the  floscules  of  the  ray, 
the  multiplication  of  which  constitutes  the  double  flower. 
The  double  sort,  however,  is  most  cultivated  by  growers 


CHERRY-TREE, 


77 


for  llie  market,  on  account  of  its  greater  bulk  and  weight.’’ 
— Loudon, 

CHERRY-TREE. — Prunus  cerasus. — The  cherry  is  a 
genus  of  plauts,  which  comprises  too  many  species  to  be 
described  in  this  place.  Loudon’s  catalogue  contains  thir- 
ty-six kinds,  but  does  not  include  all  that  are  cultivated  in 
England;  and  there  are  several  varieties  in  the  United 
States,  which  are  natives  of  the  country.  See  ThachePs 
Oi'chardisty  Coxe  on  Fruit-  Trees j and  Domestic  Encyclopedia, 
Gen.  Dearborn’s  communication  for  N,  E,  Farmer^  vol.  v. 

p.  210. 

“ The  cherry-tree  is  propagated  by  seeds  and  by  suckers, 
when  stems  are  wanted  ; by  seeds  alone,  when  new  varie- 
ties are  required  ;*  by  scions,  when  you  have  to  work  on 
old  subjects ; and  by  buds,  when  your  trees  are  young.  If 
intended  for  dwarfs,  bud  your  plants  at  two^  and  if  for 
standards,  at  four  years  of  age.  The  spring  succeeding 
this  operation  is  the  time  for  transplanting ; which  should 
be  done  carefully,  and  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  setting 
out  apple-trees.  The  fashion  or  form  of  the  trees  will 
direct  the  distance  at  which  they  are  to  stand  from  each 
other  ; between  standards  this  should  not  be  less  than  thirty 
feet  and  between  pyramids  and  espaliers,  not  less  than 
twenty. 

Though  in  our  climate  all  the  varieties  of  the  cherry- 
tree  do  well  as  standards  and  pyramids,  and  are  therefore 
generally  and  properly  cultivated  in  these  forms,  still  it 
may  be  useful  to  remark,  that  two  of  them,  the  May  duke 
and  the  Morello,  when  trained  against  walls,  give  fruit  not 
only  of  increased  precocity,  but  of  much  finer  flavour ; a 
circumstance  in  which  they  differ,  not  only  from  all  other 
varieties  of  their  own  races,  but  from  fruit-trees  of  all  other 
kinds. 

‘‘As  the  cherry  grows  on  small  spurs,  pushing  from  the 
sides  and  ends  of  two,  three,  and  four  years  old  wood,  and 
as  the  procession  of  new  buds  is  constant,  it  follows  as  a 
general  rule,  that  ‘the  knife  must  be  sparingly  employed;’ 
and  as  a particular  one  in  relation  to  wall-trees,  that  ‘ bear- 
ing branches  are  not  to  be  shortened,  if  room  can  be  found 
for  extending  them.’  These  rules,  however  rigorously 


* The  seeds  employed  should  be  taken  from  rine  fruity  committed  promptly 
to  a bed  of  sand,  and  kept  in  a dry  and  cool  place  till  the  spring,  when  ttiey 
may  be  set  out  in  rows  two  and  a half  feet  apart, 
t Miller  thinks  the  distance  should  be  forty  feet. 

7 


78 


CHERRY-TREE. 


executed,  must  not  prevent  summer  pruning,  (which  consists 
in  rubbing  off  redundant  or  ill-placed  buds,)  nor  that  of 
winter j if  confined  to  the  renewal  of  fractured  and  unsound 
wood,  or  branches  too  much  multiplied,  or  crossing  each 
other.  The  nature  of  the  Morello  will,  however,  render 
it  an  exception  to  the  general  practice  here  recommended  ; 
for,  instead  of  bearing  like  the  other  varieties,  on  two,  three, 
and  even  four  years  old  wood,  its  fruit  is  generally  produ- 
ced on  shoots  of  the  last  year,  and  rarely,  if  ever,  on  even 
two  years  old  wood.  Whence  it  follows,  that,  with  regard 
to  this  variety,  our  aim,  in  both  summer  and  winter  pruning, 
ought  to  be  ‘ a removal  of  old,  and  a provision  of  new 
bearers.’ 

“ In  renovating  an  old  tree,  pursue  Forsyth’s  method — 
shorten  it  to  a stump  not  more  than  eighteen  inches  high ; 
remove  the  old  soil  from  the  roots ; replace  it  with  that  of 
upland  pasture,  on  a layer  of  stone  or  other  impervious 
body,  two  feet  below  the  surface ; and  encourage  a single 
shoot.  ” — Armstrong, 

Use, — “ It  is  a refreshing  summer  fruit,  highly  grateful 
at  the  dessert,  and  affording  pies,  tarts,  and  other  useful  and 
elegant  preparations  in  cookery  and  confectionary.  Steep- 
ing cherries  in  brandy  qualifies  and  improves  its  strength 
and  flavour ; a fine  wine  is  made  from  the  juice,  and  a 
spirit  distilled  from  the  fermented  pulp.  The  gum  which 
exudes  from  the  tree  is  equal  to  gum  arabic ; and  Hasei- 
quist  relates,  that  more  than  two  hundred  men,  during  a 
siege,  were  kept  alive  for  nearly  two  months,  without  any 
other  sustenance  than  a little  of  the  gum  taken  sometimes 
into  the  mouth,  and  suffered  gradually  to  dissolve.  Cherry 
wood  is  hard  and  tough,  and  is  used  by  the  turner,  flute- 
maker  and  cabinet-maker.” — Loudon, 

“ The  common  wild  or  native  cherry,  {Primus  cerasus 
Virginiay)  though  it  bears  only  a small,  bitter  cherry,  which 
serves  as  food  for  birds,  is  valuable  on  account  of  its  medi- 
cinal bark,  and  also  for  its  timber,  which  is  of  a reddish, 
streaked  colour,  resembling  mahogany,  and  capable  of 
receiving  a fine  polish ; it  is  used  by  turners  and  cabinet- 
makers for  many  purposes.  The  tree  grows  to  a large  size. 

‘‘  Cherry  brandy  is  made  in  the  following  manner : — Fill 
the  cask  with  an  equal  proportion  of  Morello  and  sweet 
black  cherries ; pour  over  them  as  much  brandy  as  the 
cask  will  contain.  When  it  has  been  on  ten  days,  draw  it 
oe,  and  pour  on  hot  water ; let  this  remain  some  time,  sha- 


CHERVIL. CHIVE. COLEWORT. CORIANDER.  70 


king  the  cask  frequently,  then  draw  it  off,  mixing  the  last 
with  the  first  liquor.’’ — Domestic  Encyclopedia. 

Dr.  Cooper  adds,  in  the  last  edition— “ It  is  best  made 
with  the  small  wild  black  cherry.”  Cattle,  it  is  said,  have 
been  killed  by  eating  leaves  of  the  wild  cherry-tree.  For 
a method  of  making  cherry  wine,  see  N.  E.  Farmer^  ii.  27. 

CHERVIL. — Chcerophyllum. — This  is  an  annual  plant, 
with  leaves  resembling  those  of  double  parsley.  It  is  used 
for  salads  and  in  soups,  and  is  sown  occasionally  in  rows, 
like  parsley,  from  April  to  September. 

CHIVE. — Allium  schmnoprasum. — The  chive^  or  cive^  is 
a hardy  perennial  plant,  a native  of  Britain,  and  found  in 
meadows  and  pastures,  though  but  rarely.  The  leaves  rise 
from  many  small  bulbous  roots  connected  in  bunches  ; are  ^ 
awd-shaped,  thread-like,  and  produced  in  tufts.  The  flowers 
are  white,  tinged  with  reddish-purple,  and  appear  on  round 
stalks  in  June.” — Loudon.  It  is  of  common  and  easy  cul- 
tivation. 

COLEWORT. — Brassica  oleracea  viridis. — ‘‘The  origi- 
nal variety  of  cabbage,  called  colewort,”  says  Loudon,  “ is, 
or  seems  to  be,  lost,  and  is  now  succeeded  by  what  are 
called  cabbage-coleworts.  These,  Abercrombie  observes, 
are  valuable  family  plants,  useful  in  three  stages ; as  young 
open  greens,  as  greens  with  closing  hearts,  and  as  greens 
forming  a -cabbage  growth.”  The  culture  and  uses  of  the 
cabbage-cole  wort  are  so  similar  to  those  of  the  common 
white  cabbage,  that  details  on  the  subject  would  seem  un- 
necessary. 

It  is  said  in  Gleanings  on  Husbandry^  &c.  that  cole- 
wort is  “ a name  given  by  gardeners  to  a cabbage  plant,  to 
be  cut  for  use  from  the  time  the  leaves  are  as  broad  as  a 
man’s  hand,  till  it  begins  to  form  a close  head.  They  are 
generally  raised  from  seeds  of  any  of  the  best  kinds  of 
heading  white  cabbage ; but  those  of  the  sugar-loaf  are 
preferable  to  all  others  for  eating,” 

CORIANDER. — Coriandrum  sativum. — Coriander  is  a 
hardy  annual  plant,  which  originated  in  the  East. 

Culture. — This  plant  delights  in  a sandy  loam.  It  is 
raised  from  seeds,  which  may  be  sown  in  March,  or  as  soon 
as  the  frost  will  permit,  when  the  weather  is  mild  and  dry. 
The  quantity  of  seed  requisite  for  a bed  six  feet  long  and 
four  feet  wide,  sown  in  rows  nine  inches  apart,  is  half  an 
ounce.  The  seed  should  be  buried  half  an  inch. 

Use. — The  seeds  have  a pleasant  flavour,  and,  when  en- 


80 


CRESS,  WATER. 


crusted  with  sugar,  are  sold  by  the  confectioners  under  the 
name  of  coriander  comfits.  They  are  also  used  in  the  bitter 
infusions  and  preparations  of  senna,  the  disagreeable  taste 
of  which  they  completely  overcome,  and  for  various  other 
purposes,  both  by  druggists  and  distillers. 

CRESS,  WATER. — Sisymbrium  nasturtium. — A genus  of 
plants,  of  which  the  principal  is  the  common  water-cress, 
found  in  springs  and  brooks.  It  is  perennial,  and  produces 
white  flowers  that  are  in  bloom  in  June  or  July.  Lasteyrie 
tells  us,  that,  in  Germany,  great  pains  are  taken  to  propagate 
the  water-cress,  and  gives  the  following  account  of  their 
mode  of  doing  it:  ‘‘The  water,’’ says  he,  “ most  favourable  for 
its  production,  is  that  in  which  it  grows  naturally,  and  which 
in  winter  preserves  heat  enough  to  prevent  it  from  freezing. 
The  situation  on  which  to  form  a cress  plantation  ought  to 
have  a little  slope  or  inclination,  because  water  in  a state 
of  repose,  alters  the  flavour  of  the  plant.  Having  chosen 
the  place,  it  is  formed  into  heights  and  hollows  alternately  . 
the  latter  are  destined  for  the  cresses,  and  the  former  for  the 
culture  of  other  plants.  The  size  of  the  hollows  is  made  to 
depend  on  the  quantity  of  water  you  can  bring  into  them, 
and  the  demand  for  the  article  to  be  raised.  If  the  soil  of 
the  hollows  is  not  sufficiently  rich,  better  earth  must  be 
brought  to  amend  it,  and  if  the  bottom  be  marshy,  you 
throw  over  it  some  inches  of  sand.  Your  next  step  is  to 
cover  it  with  water  for  some  hours,  after  which  you  drain 
and  sow  or  plant.  At  the  end  of  a few  days,  you  let  in  the 
water,  and  drain  as  before,  and  continue  these  processes  un- 
til the  cresses  appear,  if  sown,  or  until  they  have  taken  root, 
if  planted.  The  quantity  of  water  let  in  is  always  to  be 
regulated  by  the  growth  of  the  plant ; for,  though  it  cannot 
live  but  in  water,  it  will  not  bear  to  be  long  covered  with  it. 
Planting  is  always  surer  than  sowing,  and  is  therefore  pre- 
ferred. The  epoch  for  this  is  either  March  or  August.  The 
distance  between  the  plants  should  not  be  less  than  ten  or 
fifteen  inches.  Moving  the  earth  about  their  roots  with  the 
hoe,  from  time  to  time,  is  useful ; but  for  the  rest,  (having 
once  taken  root,)  no  further  care  is  necessary.  A cress 
plantation  is  in  full  bearing  the  second  year,  and  lasts  a 
long  time.  When  it  begins  to  fail,  it  .may  be  renewed  by 
taking  off  a foot  of  the  surface  soil  of  the  old  beds  and 
replacing  it  with  good  and  fresh  earth.  In  winter,  the  beds 
are  covered  more  deeply  with  water,  which  protects  the 
plant  against  the  frost.” 


CRESS,  GARDEN. 


81 


The  same  writer  informs  ns  how  they  manage  their  cress 
plantations  near  Paris.  “ Having  there,”  he  says,  “ no  run- 
ning water,  they  cultivate  it  in  the  neighbourhood  of  wells, 
and  water  it  every  day.  The  cress  vegetates  promptly,  but 
becomes  acrid  in  its  taste.  They  accordingly  prefer  sow- 
ing to  planting,  because,  if  cut  when  only  six  inches  high, 
and  treated,  in  all  respects,  as  an  annual,  it  has  least  of  this 
pungency.  ’ ’ — Armstrong'^ s Treatise, 

Loudon  says,  ‘‘  Some  market  gardeners,  who  can  com- 
mand a small  stream  of  water,  grow  the  water-cress  in  beds 
sunk  about  a foot  in  a retentive  soil,  with  a very  gentle  slope 
from  one  end  to  the  other.  Along  the  bottom  of  this  bed, 
which  may  be  of  any  convenient  breadth  and  length,  chalk 
or  gravel  is  deposited,  and  the  plants  are  inserted  about  six 
inches’  distance  every  way.  Then,  according  to  the  slope 
and  length  of  the  bed,  dams  are  made  six  inches  high  across 
it,  at  intervals ; so  that,  when  these  dams  are  full,  the  water 
may  rise  not  less  than  three  inches  on  all  the  plants  included 
in  each.  The  water  being  turned  on  will  circulate  from 
dam  to  dam ; and  the  plants,  if  not  allowed  to  run  to  flower, 
will  afford  abundance  of  young  tops  in  all  but  the  wintei 
months.  A stream  of  water,  no  larger  than  what  will  fill 
a pipe  of  one  inch  bore,  will,  if  not  absorbed  by  the  soil 
suffice  to  irrigate  in  this  way  an  eighth  of  an  acre.  As 
some  of  the  plants  are  apt  to  rot  off  in  winter,  the  plantation 
should  be  laid  dry  two  or  three  times  a year,  and  all  weeds 
and  decayed  parts  removed,  and  vacancies  filled  up. 
Cress  grown  in  this  way,  however,  is  far  inferior  to  that 
grown  in  a living  stream  flowing  over  gravel  or  chalk.” 

Use, — ‘‘Water-cresses  are  universally  used  and  eaten  as 
an  early  and  wholesome  spring  salad.  Being  an  excellent 
antiscorbutic  and  stomachic,  they  are  nearly  allied  to  scurvy 
grass,  but  do  not  possess  so  great  a degree  of  acrimony. 
They  are  also  supposed  to  purify  the  blood  and  humours, 
and  to  open  visceral  obstructions.” — Dorn,  Encyc, 

CRESS,  GARDEN. — Lepidium  sativum, — The  garden- 
cress  is  a hardy,  annual  plant,  cultivated,  says  Loudon,  since 
1548;  but  its  native  country  is  unknown. 

Varieties, — 

Curled,  or  peppergrass,  | Broad- leaved  garden  cress. 

This  plant  is  raised  from  seed,  of  which  one  ounce  will 
suffice  for  a bed  of  four  feet  square. 

Times  of  sowing^  and  site  of  the  crop, — Cress  should  be 
raised  three  or  four  times  every  month,  as  it  may  be  in  de- 


82 


CUCUMBER. 


mandj  to  have  young  crops  constantly  in  succession.  Allot 
some  warm  situation  for  early  spring  sowing;  and,  if  the 
weather  be  cold,  either  put  on  a spare  frame,  or  cover  with 
matting  between  sunset  and  sunrise.  For  autumnal  sow- 
ings, when  cold  weather  is  approaching,  allot  some  warm 
borders,  and  give  occasional  protection.  The  cress,” 
says  Loudon,  is  often  raised  on  porous  earthen  ware  ves- 
sels, of  a conical  form,  having  small  gutters  on  the  sides  for 
retaining  the  seeds.  These  are  called  pyramids^  are  some- 
what ornamental  in  winter,  and  afford  repeated  gatherings.” 
Process  in  sowing^  and  subsequent  culture, — “ Having 
allotted  a fine,  mellow  soil,  to  receive  the  seed,  dig  the  sur- 
face, and  rake  it  finally,  preparatory  to  sowing,  which  mostly 
perform  in  small,  flat,  shallow  drills,  four,  five,  or  six  inches 
asunder.  Sow  the  seed  very  thickly,  and  earth  over  very 
lightly,  or  but  just  thinly  cover.  Give  occasional  waterings 
in  v/arm,  dry  seasons.” 

Taking  the  crop, — To  gather  cress  in  perfection,  cut 
them  while  moderately  young,  either  clean  to  the  root,  or 
only  the  tops  of  advanced  plants.  They  will  shoot  again 
for  future  gathering,  but  the  leaves  will  be  hotter,  and  not 
so  mild  and  tender  as  those  of  younger  plants.” 

To  save  seed, — Either  sow  a portion  in  the  spring  for 
that  purpose,  or  leave  some  rows  of  any  overgrown  old  crop 
in  April  or  May.  The  plants  will  yield  seed  in  autumn.” 
CUCUMBER. — Cucumis  saliva,— the  varieties  of 

this  species  of  plants,  are, 

✓ 

Early  Green  cluster;  | Long  prickly; 

Early  frame,  | White  spined. 

Long  green  Turkey,  | Short  prickly. 

Long  white  Turkey,  | Small  girkin,  or  West  India. 

Soil, — In  our  climate,  cucumbers  will  grow  in  any  soil, 
though  not  with  the  same  degree  of  vigour,  provided  they 
be  supplied  with  a sufficiency  of  heat,  light,  water,  and  air. 
It  is  an  object  with  many  market  gardeners  and  others,  to 
produce  cucumbers  at  an  early  period,  and  for  this  purpose 
artificial  heat  is  necessary.  F or  early  forcing,  Abercrombie 
recommends  a mould  or  compost,  of  the  following  materials  : 
“ one  third  of  rich  top  spit  earth,  from  an  upland  pasture, 
one  half  of  vegetable  mould,  and  one  sixth  of  well  decom- 
posed horse-dung,  with  a small  quantity  of  sand. 

Time  of  beginning  to  force, — Abercrombie  says,  Mana- 
gers, who  have  to  provide  against  demands  for  early  cucum- 
bers, must  raise  seedlings  from  twelve  to  ten  weeks  before 


CUCUMBER. 


83 


the  iVuit  will  be  required,  according  to  the  length  of  the 
days  in  the  interval.  In  proportion  as  the  entire  course 
embraces  a greater  part  of  mid-winter,  the  liability  of  failure 
from  obstacles  in  the  weather  will  be  greater.  The  last 
fortnight  in  January,  or  first  week  of  February,  is  a good 
time  for  beginning  to  force  the  most  early  crop.  In  the 
subsequent  months,  both  main  and  secondary  crops  may  be 
started  as  required,  and  will  come  forward  more  freely. 
To  have  a constant  succession,  seedlings  should  be  origi- 
nated twice  a month.  As  the  course  of  forcing  more  coin- 
cides with  the  natural  growing  season,  the  length  of  it  will 
be  reduced  to  eight,  seven,  or  six  weeks.”  Nicol  recom- 
mends the  middle  of  January.  He  says,  Some  begin 
sooner,  but  it  is  striving  hard  against  the  stream  to  little 
purpose.  If  the  dung  be  prepared,  and  the  bed  be  got 
ready,  so  as  to  sow  about  the  1st  of  February,  the  success 
will  be  often  greater  than  by  sowing  a month  earlier.”  Be- 
sides, cucumbers,  produced  altogether  by  the  heat  of  dung, 
without  the  aid  of  the  sun,  are  less  wholesome  and  palatable 
than  those  which  Nature  affords  in  the  due  course  of  her 
operations. 

Sorts, — Abercrombie  recommends  the  short  prickly  for 
very  early  fruit,  and  the  long  prickly  kinds  for  the  chief 
early  and  main  summer  crops.”  M^Phail  prefers  the  green 
cucumber  with  black  prickles,  as  best  for  forcing.  When 
fit  for  table,  it  runs  from  six  to  nine  inches  long,  and,  when 
ripe,  runs  to  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  long.” 

Choice  of  seeds, — ‘‘  It  is  advisable,”  Abercrombie  ob- 
serves, to  have  seed  from  two,  at  least,  to  four  years  old, 
in  preference  to  newer  seed,  which  is  apt  to  run  luxuriantly 
in  vine,  and  the  plants  from  it  do  not  show  fruit  so  soon 
nor  so  abundantly  as  those  from  seed  of  a greater  age.  But 
when  seed  has  been  kept  more  than  four  years,  it  is  some- 
times found  to  be  too  much  weakened.”  Mr.  Armstrong 
says,  A debate  has  long  existed,  on  the  preference  to  be 
given  to  old  or  new  seeds,  and  which,  like  many  others, 
appears  to  be  interminable.  The  Abbe  Rozier  and  his 
followers  think  that  the  most  vigorous  plants  of  all  species 
and  kinds  are  the  best,  and,  accordingly,  prefer  new  seeds, 
because  more  likely  to  produce  such  than  old  ones  : while, 
on  the  other  hand,  their  opponents  maintain,  that  plants 
may  have  too  much  vigour,  as  well  as  too  little ; and  that, 
whenever  an  excess  of  vigour  exists,  according  to  all  vege- 
table analogy,  it  shows  itself  in  the  production  of  stems  and 


84 


CUCUMBER. 


leaves,  not  in  that  of  flowers  and  fruits — whence  they  con- 
clude, ihat  old  cucumber  seeds,  (like  those  of  all  the  rest 
of  the  cucurbitacece  family,)  are  better  than  new,  because 
less  vigorous.  The  best  practical  use  to  be  made  of  this 
controversy,  is  to  sow  old  seeds  in  the  spring,^  when  vege- 
tation is  most  powerful,  and  new  ones  in  July^  when  it 
begins  to  abate.’’ 

Forcing  cucumbers, — “ Towards  the  latter  end  of  January, 
a quantity  of  fresh  horse-dung  should  be  procured  with  the 
litter  among  it,  to  which  a small  portion  of  sea-coal  ashes 
may  well  be  added.  In  the  course  of  four  or  five  days,  the 
dung  begins  to  heat,  when  a little  of  it  may  be  drawn  flat 
on  the  outside,  and  covered  two  inches  thick  with  good 
earth  ; over  which  a bell-glass  ought  to  be  placed ; and  two 
days  after,  when  the  soil  is  warm,  the  seeds  should  be  sowm, 
covered  with  fresh  mould  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
the  glass  again  set  over  it.  This  must  be  screened  by  a 
mat  during  the  night,  and  in  four  days  the  young  plants 
will  germinate.  As  soon  as  they  appear,  the  rest  of  the 
dung  must  be  beaten  close  together  into  a bed  for  one  or 
more  lights,  which  bed  should  be  three  feet  thick,  and  cov- 
ered three  inches  deep  with  fine,  fresh  earth ; the  frame  is 
then  to  be  put  on ; and,  during  the  night,  or  in  bad  weather, 
sheltered  with  mats.  When  the  soil  is  hot  enough,  the 
young  plants  must  be  removed  into  it,  and  set  at  two  inches 
distance,  the  glasses  being  occasionally  raised  to  admit 
fresh  air,  and  also  frequently  turned,  to  prevent  the  wet 
steam  of  the  dung  from  dropping  down  on  the  plants.  These 
ought  to  be  watered  at  stated  times,  with  tepid  or  luke-w arm 
water;  and,  as  they  increase  in  size, should  be  earthed  up ; 
an  operation  which  will  considerably  augment  their  strength. 
If  the  bed  be  not  hot  enough,  fresh  litter  should  be  laid 
round  i(s  sides ; but  if  it  be  too  warm,  it  should  be  perfo- 
rated with  a stake  to  give  vent  to  the  heat;  and,  as  soon  as 
the  bed  acquires  a proper  temperature,  the  holes  are  to  be 
closed  up  with  fresh  earth.  When  the  plants  begin  to  shoot 
their  third  or  rough  leaf,  another  bed  should  be  prepared 
for  them,  similar  to  the  first ; and,  when  the  soil  is  thorough- 
ly warmed,  they  should  be  transplanted  into  it,  in  holes 
about  a foot  deep,  and  nine  inches  broad,  filled  with  light, 
fine,  fresh  mould,  laid  in  a hollow,  circular  form.  In  each 
of  these  holes  four  plants  should  be  set,  and  shaded  for  two 
or  three  days  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  that  they  may  strike 
root ; after  which  time  it  will  be  useful  to  expose  them  to 


CUCUMBER. 


85 


the  sun  and  air,  as  often  as  the  weather  will  permit.  When 
they  have  attained  the  height  of  four  or  five  inches,  they 
should  be  gently  fastened  down  to  the  soil,  in  different  di- 
rections ; and  the  branches  afterw^ards  produced  ought  to 
be  treated  in  a similar  manner,  as  it  will  much  contribute 
to  forward  their  maturity.  In  the  course  of  a month  the 
flowers  will  appear,  and,  shortly  after,  the  rudiments  of  the 
fruit.  The  glasses  should  now  be  carefully  covered  during 
tlie  night,  and  the  plants  gently  sprinkled  with  water  in  the 
day  time.  These  will  produce  fruit  till  midsummer,  and 
may  be  succeeded  by  a second  crop,  which  is  to  be  raised 
nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  earlier  cucumbers,  with 
tliis  only  difference,  that  the  former  should  be  sowm  toward 
the  end  of  March,  or  the  beginning  of  April,  and  that  it 
iv  M ires  less  care  and  attention.’’ — Dom,  Encyc, 

The  smallest  degree  of  heat  for  forcing  cucumber  plants^ 
at  the  coldest  time  of  night,  is  58  degrees ; and  the  greatest 
heat  necessary  in  the  day  time  is  65  degrees. 

Well  preparing  the  dung  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  forcing  the  cucumber,  and  if  not  done  before  it  is  made 
into  a bed,  it  cannot  be  done  after,  as  it  requires  turning  and 
watering  to  cause  it  to  ferment  freely  and  sweetly ; fresh 
dung  from  the  stable  will  require  at  least  six  weeks’  prepa- 
ration before  it  will  be  fit  to  receive  the  plants.  A month 
before  it  is  madt*  mto  a bed,  it  should  be  laid  into  a heap, 
turned  three  times,  and  well  shaken  to  pieces  with  a fork, 
and  the  outsides  of  the  heap  turned  into  the  middle,  and 
the  middle  to  the  outsides,  that  the  whole  may  have  a regu- 
lar fermentation ; and  if  any  appear  dry,  it  should  be  made 
wet,  keeping  it  always  between  the  two  extremes  of  wet 
and  dry.  A dry  spot  of  ground  should  be  chosen  to  pre- 
pare the  dung  on,  that  the  water  may  drain  away  from  the 
bottom  of  the  heap.  The  dung  having  been  a month  in 
heap,  I make  the  bed  as  follows  : — I form  a stratum  one  foot 
high,  of  wood  of  any  kind,  but  if  large  the  better ; (old  roots 
of  trees,  or  any  other  of  little  value  will  do ;)  this  is  to  drain 
the  water  from  the  bottom  of  the  bed ; for,  after  a month’s 
preparation,  with  every  care,  it  will  frequently  heat  itself  dry, 
and  require  water  in  large  quantities,  which,  if  not  allowed 
to  pass  off  freely,  will  cause  an  unw'holesome  steam  to”  rise, 
in  which  the  cucumber-plant  will  not  grow  freely : on  this 
bottom  of  wood  I make  the  bed,  four  feet  high,  with  dung, 
gently  beating  it  dov/n  with  a fork  : this  is  done  about  the  1st 
November,  and  by  the  month  of  February,  the  four  feet  of 
dung  will  not  be  more  than  two  feet  thick,  which,  with  the 
8 


86 


CUCUMBER. 


foot  of  wood  at  the 'bottom,  will  make  the  bed  three  feet 
high ; this  I consider  a good  height,  for,  if  lower,  it  cannor  be 
so  well  heated  by  linings,  which  is  the  only  method  of  warm- 
ing it  in  the  months  of  February  and  March,  as  by  that  time 
the  first  heat  of  the  bed  will  have  quite  declined.  Having 
made  the  bed,  I put  on  the  frames  and  lights,  which  I shut 
close  till  the  heat  rises.  I then  give  air  night  and  day,  suffi- 
cient to  allow  the  steam  to  pass  off,  and  once  in  two  days  I 
fork  the  surface  over,  about  nine  inches  deep,  to  sweeten  it, 
and  if,  in  the  operation,  I find  any  part  dry,  I carefully  wet  it. 
The  bed  being  quite  sweet,  I prepare  it  for  the  mould,  by 
u'.aking  the  middle  about  eight  inches  lower  than  the  sides, 
as  the  sides  are  liable,  from  the  weight  of  the  frames,  to 
settle  faster  than  the  middle,  which  often  causes  the  hills 
of  earth  to  crack,  by  which  the  roots  of  the  plants  are 
greatly  injured.” — Hort,  Trans,  vol.  iii.  p.  147. 

Mr.  Cobbett  says,  ‘‘  If  you  wish  to  have  cucumbers  a 
•month  earlier  than  the  natural  ground  will  bring  them,  do 
this  : — Make  a hole,  and  put  into  it  a little  hot  dung ; let 
the  hole  be  under  a warm  fence.  Put  six  inches  deep  of 
fine  rich  earth  on  the  dung.  Sow  a parcel  of  seeds  in  this 
earth  ; and  cover  at  night  with  a bit  of  carpet,  or  sail-cloth, 
having  first  fixed  some  hoops  over  this  little  bed.  Before 
tlie  plants  show  the  rough  leaf,  plant  two  into  a little  flower- 
pot, and  fill  as  many  pots  in  this  way  as  you  please.  Have 
a larger  bed  ready  to  put  the  pots  into,  and  covered  with 
earth,  so  that  the  pots  may  be  plunged  in  the  earth  up  to  their 
tops.  Cover  this  bed  like  the  last.  When  the  plants  have 
got  tw^o  rough  leaves  out,  they  will  begin  to  make  a shoot 
in  the  midclie.  Pinch  that  short  off.  Let  them  stand  in 
tills  bed,  till  your  cucumbers  sown  in  the  natural  ground  come 
up ; tlieii  make  some  little  holes  in  good,  rich  land,  and, 
taking  a pot  at  a time,  turn  out  the  6a//,  and  fix  it  in  the 
hole.  These  plants  will  bear  a month  sooner  than  those  sown 
in  the  natural  ground  ; and  a square  yard  will  contain  thirty- 
six  p^ts,  and  will,  of  course,  furnish  plants  for  thirty-six  hills 
of  cucumbers,  which,  if  well  managed,  will  keep  on  be'aring 
till  September.  Those  who  have  hot-bed  frames^  or  hand- 
lights^  will  do  this  matter  very  easily.  The  cucumber  plant 
is  very  tender  and  juicy  ; and,  therefore,  when  the  seed- 
lings are  put  into  the  pots,  they  should  be  watered  and 
shaded  for  a day  or  two  ; when  the  balls  are  turned  into  the 
ground,  they  should  be  watered,^  and  shaded  with  a bough 
for  one  day.  That  will  be  enough. — I have  one  observa- 
tion to  make  upon  tlio  cultivation  of  cucumber-,  melons  of 


CUCUMBER. 


87 


all  sorts,  and  that  of  all  the  pumpkin  and  S([ua:>h  tribe  ; and 
that  is,  that  it  is  a great  error  to  sow  them  too  thick,  Ofie 
plant  in  a hill  is  enough  ; and  I would  put  two  into  a potj 
merely  as  a bar  against  accidents.  One  will  bring  more 
weight  of  fruit  than  two,  (if  standing  near  each  other,)  two 
more  than  three,  and  so  on,  till  you  come  to  iifty  in  a square 
foot ; and  then  you  will  have  no  fruit  at  all  ! Let  any  one 
make  the  experiment,  and  he  will  find  this  observation 
mathematically  true.  When  cucumbers  are  left  eight  or  ten 
plants  in  a hill,  they  never  shoot  strongly,  Tlieir  vines  arc 
poor  and  weak.  The  leaves  become  yellow ; and,  if  they 
bear  at  all,  it  is  poor,  tasteless  fruit  that  they  produce. 
Their  bearing  is  over  in  a few  weeks.  Whereas,  a single 
plant,  in  the  same  space,  will  send  its  fine  green  vines  all 
around  it  to  a great  distance,  and,  if  no  fruit  be  left  to  ripen,^ 
will  keep  bearing  till  the  white  frosts  come  in  the  fall. — 
The  roots  of  a cucumber  will  go  tern  feet,  in  fine  earth,  in 
every  direction.  Judge  then,  how  ten  plants,  standing  close 
to  one  another,  must  produce  mutual  starvation  !” 

Mr.  Armstrong  has  the  following  observations  with  regard 
to  early  cucumbers  : — To  obtaiil  these,  we  must  have  re- 
course to  artificial  heat ; and  with  the  less  reluctance,  as, 
of  all  plants,  the  cucumber  is  that  with  which  it  best  agrees. 
To  this  end,  therefore,  scoop  as  many  large  turnips  as  you 
propose  to  have  hills ; fill  these  with  good  garden  mould, 
sow  in  each  three  or  four  seeds,  and  plunge  them  into  a 
hot-bed.  The  advantage  of  the  scooped  turnip,  as  a seed- 
bed, over  pots  or  vases,  will  now  appear ; for,  instead  of  the 
ordinary  difficulty  of  separating  the  mass  of  earth  and  the 
plant  from  the  pot  which  contained  them,  and  without  injury 
to  either,  we  re-inter  both  pot  and  plant,  and  even  find  in  the 
one  an  additional  nutriment  for  the  other.  The  subsequent 
treatment  does  not  difier  at  all  from  that  of  plants  sown  and 
cultivated  in  the  open  air.” — Mem,  of  N,  Y,  Board  of  Agr, 
vol.  ii.  p.  115, 

Training. — To  force  the  cucumbers  into  early  fruit,  Aber- 
crombie directs  to  stop  the  runners  as  soon  as  the  plants 
have  made  two  rough  leaves : as  the  bud  that  produces  the 
runner  is  disclosed  at  the  base  of  the  second  rough  leaf,  it 
may  be  cut  off  or  picked  out ; or,  if  the  runner  has  already 
started,  it  may  be  pinched  off  close.  This  is  called  stop- 
ping at  the  first  joint,  and  is  necessary  to  promote  a stronger, 
stocky  growth,  and  an  emission  of  fruitful  laterals  ; and 
from  these  the  prolific  runners  will  be  successively  pro- 
duced. The  vines,  without  the  process  of  stopping,  would 


88 


CUCUMBER. 


generally  be  both  weaker,  and  so  deficient  in  fertile  run- 
ners, that  they  would  sometimes  extend  two  or  three  feet 
without  showing  fruit.  When  plants,  which  have  been 
once  stopped,  have  extended  the  first  runners  to  three  joints 
without  showing  fruit,  they  are  to  be  again  stopped  for  the 
r orpose  of  strengthening  the  plant,  and  disposing  it  for 
Dearing.  As  fertile  runners  extend,  train  them  out  regular- 
ly along  the  surface,  fastening  them  down  neatly  with  pegs.’’ 

Upright  training. — Cucumber  plants  being  climbers  by 
means  of  their  tendrils,  some  branchy  sticks  being  placed 
to  any  advancing  runners,  they  will  ascend,  and  produce 
fruit  at  a distance  from  the  ground,  of  a clean  growth,  free 
from  spots  and  well  flavoured.  Mr.  J.  W.  of  Philadel- 
phia informed  Dr.  Mease,  that  he  enriched  the  ground  near 
the  trunk  of  a peach  tree,  and  sowed  some  cucumber  seed, 
which  came  up  very  abundantly.  He  pulled  up  all  the 
plants  but  one,  and  permitted  the  vine  to  run  up  the  tree. 
It  bore  150  cucumbers.  The  numerous  creepers  with  which 
the  cucumber  abounds,  and  the  result  of  this  experiment, 
would  seem  to  point  out  the  climbing  nature  of  the  plant, 
and  the  great  advantage  arising  from  permitting  it  to  attach 
itself  to  a frame  or  tree,  instead  of  confining  it  to  the 
ground.” — Bom.  Encyc. 

Setting  the  fruit. — “ The  cucumber,”  Abercrombie  ob- 
serves, bears  male  and  female  blossoms  distinctly  on  the 
same  plant.  The  latter  only  produce  the  fruit,  which  ap- 
pears first  in  miniature,  close  under  the  base,  even  before 
the  flower  expands.  There  is  never  any  in  the  males ; but 
these  are  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  females,  and  are  ab- 
solutely necessary,  by  the  dispersion  of  their  farina,  to  im- 
pregnate the  female  blossom ; the  fruit  of  which  will  not 
otherwise  swell  to  its  full  size,  and  the  seeds  will  be  abor- 
tive. The  early  plants  under  glass,  not  having  the  full  cur- 
rent of  the  natural  air,  nor  the  assistance  of  bees  and  other 
winged  insects  to  convey  the  farina,  the  artificial  aid  of  the 
cultivator  is  necessary  to  effect  the  impregnation.  At  the 
time  of  fructification,  watch  the  plants  daily ; and  as  soon 
as  a female  flower  and  some  male  blossoms  are  fully 
expanded,  proceed  to  set  the  fruit  the  same  day,  or  next 
morning  at  furthest.  Take  off  a male  blossom,  detaching 
it  with  part  of  the  footstalk.  Hold  this  between  the  fingei 
and  thumb  ; pull  away  the  flower-leaf  close  to  the  stamens 
and  anthera  or  central  part,  which  apply  close  to  the  stigma 
or  bosom  of  the  female  flower,  twirling  it  a little  about,  to 
*iischarge  thereon  some  particles  of  the  fertilizing  powder 


CUCUMBER. 


80 


Proceed  thus  to  set  every  fruit,  as  the  flowers  of  both  sorts 
open,  while  of  a lively,  full  expansion  ; and  generally  per- 
form it  in  the  early  part  of  the  day ; using  a fresh  male,  if 
possible,  for  each  impregnation,  as  the  males  are  usually 
more  abundant  than  the  female  blossoms.  In  consequence, 
the  young  fruit  will  soon  be  observed  to  swell  freely.  Cu- 
cumbers attain  the  proper  size  forgathering  in  about  fifteen, 
eighteen,  or  twenty  days  from  the  time  of  setting ; and 
often  in  succession,  for  two  or  three  montlis  or  more,  in  the 
same  bed,  by  good  culture.  The  above  artificial  operation 
will  be  found  both  necessary  and  effectual  in  forcing  the 
cucumber,  between  the  decline  of  autumn  and  May,  while 
the  plants  are  mostly  shut  under  glass.  In  plants  more 
freely  exposed  to  the  free  air,  in  the  increasing  warmth  of 
spring,  and  in  having  the  full  open  air  in  summer,  from 
June  or  July  till  September,  the  impregnation  is  effected 
mostly  or  wholly  by  nature.  The  male  flowers,  being  by 
some  ignorantly  denominated  false  blossoms,  are  often 
plucked  wholly  off  as  useless,  under  a notion  of  strengthen- 
ing the  plant : but  this  should  not  be  generally  done. 
Where  crowded  too  thick  in  clusters,  some  maybe  thinned 
out  moderately ; but  their  agency  being  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  fertilizing  the  females,  they  should  only  be  displaced 
as  they  begin  to  decay,  except  where  they  are  superabun- 
dant.” 

Principal  summer  crop. — The  ground  being  dug  and 
smoothed,  line  it  into  squares  of  six  feet.  In  the  centre  of 
each,  dig  a hole  about  fourteen  inches  deep ; fill  this  wdth 
well  rotted  dung,  and  sow  on  it  five  or  six  cucumber  seeds  : 
cover  these  with  mould,  and,  when  they  rise  and  take  a 
rough  leaf,  select  two  to  each  hill,  and  draw  out  the 
remainder.  This  sowing  cannot  be  safely  made  in  our  cli- 
mate till  the  10th  of  May.  For  the  fall  and  pickling 
crops,  you  must  sow  the  first  or  second  week  in  July.” — 
Armstrong. 

Those  cucumbers,  which  are  sowed  as  late  as  July,  will 
not  require  topping  or  cutting  off  the  runners  as  before  di- 
rected, for  at  this  season  vegetation  will  be  less  vigorous, 
and  there  will  be  less  danger  of  the  plant  running  too  much 
to  vine. 

Raising  plants  from  cuttings. — “Instead  of  raising  cucumber 
plants  from  seed,  they  may  be  raised  from  cuttings,  and  thus 
kept  on  from  year  to  year,  in  the  following  manner  : — Take  a 
shoot  that  is  just  ready  for  stopping,  cut  it  off  just  below  the 
joint,  behind  the  joint  before  which  the  shoot  should  have 
8 * 


90 


CUCUMBEK. 


been  stopped ; then  cut  smooth  the  lower  end  of  the  shoot  or 
catting,  and  stick  it  into  fine  leaf  or  other  rich  mould  about  an 
inch  deep,  and  give  it  plenty  of  heat,  and  shade  it  from  the 
rays  of  the  sun  till  it  be  fairly  struck.  By  this  method,  >as 
well  as  by  that  of  laying,  cucumbers  may  be  propagated. 

‘‘  Mearns,  gardener  at  Shobden  Court,  near  Leominster, 
propagates  his  cucumber-plants  for  a winter  crop  in  this 
way,  and  finds  that  the  plants  raised  from  cuttings  are 
less  succulent,  and  therefore  do  not  so  readily  damp  off,  or 
suffer  from  the  low  temperature  to  which  they  are  liaLie  to 
be  exposed  in  severe  weather  ; that  they  come  into  bearing 
immediately,  as  they  have  formed  roots  of  sufficient  strength 
to  support  their  fruit,  and  do  not  run  so  much  to  barren 
vine  as  seedlings  are  apt  to  do,’^  He  takes  the  cuttings 
from  the  tops  of  the  bearing  shoots,  and  plants  them  in  pots 
nine  inches  deep,  half  filled  v/ith  mould.  He  then  waters 
them,  covers  the  tops  of  the  pots  with  fiat  pieces  of  glass, 
and  plunges  them  into  a gentle  bottom  heat.  ‘‘  The  sides 
of  the  pot  act  as  a sufficient  shade  for  the  cuttings  during 
the  time  they  are  striking,  and  the  fiat  glass,  in  this  and 
other  operations,  answers  ail  the  purposes  of  bell-glasses. 
The  cuttings  form  roots,  and  are  ready  to  put  off  in  less  than 
a fortnight.” — HorU  Trans,  vol.  iv.  p.  411. 

Cucumbers  increased  by  layers. — “ As  soon  as  several 
flower-buds  appear  on  a plant,  bend  the  second  or  third 
joint  of  a branch  below  the  blossom,  fasten  it  firmly  into 
the  ground,  and  cut  off  the  capillary  point  of  the  plant ; it 
speedily  takes  root,  and  must  be  separated  from  the  parent 
stock ; as  each  root  has  only  to  supply  a few  fruits  with 
nourishment,  it  saves  room,  labour  and  time,  and  affords 
a constant  supply  for  eight,  twelve  and  more  months, 
which  is  not  so  liable  to  degenerate  as  if  they  w^ere  raised 
from  a variety  of  seeds.” — Gleanings  in  Husbandry. 

Culture. — In  the  culture  of  all  the  crops,  give  proper  sup- 
plies of  w^ater  in  dry,  warm  weather,  two  or  4hree  times  a 
week,  or  every  day  when  very  warm  and  dry.  If  the  heat 
in  the  hot-beds,  after  three  or  four  weeks  or  more,  be  much 
declined,  and  the  nights  or  general  season  remain  cold,  let 
a moderate  lining  of  hot  dung  be  applied  to  both  sides ; 
which  wdll  not  only  cause  a reviving  heat,  but  wdden  the 
bed  for  the  roots  and  runners  of  the  plants  to  extend. 

Insects. — “ The  fly,  which  is  often  very  destructive  to 
cucumbers,  melons  and  pumpkins,  may  be  killed  by  sprin- 
kling a mixture  of  tobacco  water  and  red  pepper  over  the 
vines.” — Doin.  Encyc.  Sprinkle  the  plants  with  a strong 


CUCUMBEIl. 


91 


infusion  of  elder  leaves;  that  of  hops  and  of  walnut  leaves 
is  likewise  recommended ; or,  suspend  a diamond-formed 
piece  of  white  paper,  shingle,  or  other  piece  of  wood,  by  a 
thread,  tied  to  the  end  of  a stick  stuck  in  the  ground  at  a 
small  distance  from  the  hill,  so  that  the  paper  shall  hang 
directly  over  the  hill  and  near  the  plants.  The  air,  by 
constantly  vibrating  the  paper  or  shingle,  will  have  a ten- 
dency to  prevent  insects  from  alighting  on  the  plants.  The 
surest  way,  however,  is  to  enclose  the  hills  with  frames 
covered  with  gauze,  or  other  cloth  of  a light  texture.  The 
following  method  of  making  sieves,  or  boxes,  to  protect 
cucumber  vines,  melon  vines,  &c.  against  the  yellow  bug, 
&c.  was  communicated  to  the  editor  of  the  N,  E,  Farmer 
by  Mr.  Levi  Bartlett,  of  Warner,  N.  H.  and  published  in 
that  paper,  vol.  ii.  p.  305. 

‘^Take  a strip  of  pine  board  (about  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  is  most  suitable)  eight  or  ten  feet  in 
length,  and  four  or  five  inches  in  width — plough  one  edge 
of  it  with  a carpenter’s  plough  or  match  plain — then  mark 
off  an  equal  number  of  side  and  end  pieces ; before  sawing 
the  side  pieces,  run  a brad-awl  through  where  you  want  to 
drive  your  nails,  as  it  is  not  so  likely  to  split,  as  after  it  is 
sawed.  The  side  pieces  eleven  inches  long — ends  eight 
inches  long.  They  must  be  of  this  particular  size,  because 
one  yard  of  millinet  will  just  cover  nine  boxes  ; or  a third 
of  a yard  will  make  three  covers.  After  having  nailed 
your  boxes,  and  divided  your  millinet,  have  some  thin  strips 
or  tongues,  as  the  carpenters  call  them.  Press  these  wdth 
the  edges  of  the  covers  into  the  groove,  which  fastens  them 
much  cheaper  and  more  expeditiously  than  small  nails.  I 
made  about  twenty  last  season,  and  they  effectually 
secured  them  from  the  yellow  bug,  and  (by  sinking  the 
edges  of  them  in  the  earth  a little)  from  worms.  But  if 
they  were  of  no  use  but  to  guard  against  insects,  they  would 
be  worth  having,  as  they  keep  off  the  cold  winds,  and  great- 
ly promote  the  growth  of  the  vines  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season.” 

To  save  seed. — “ Select  some  best  summer  fruit  from 
good,  productive  plants,  which  permit  to  continue  in  full 
growth  till  they  become  yellow.  Then  cut  them  from  the 
vine,  and  place  them  upright  on  end,  in  the  full  sun,  for 
two  or  three  weeks  ; when  they  may  be  cut  open,  and  the 
seed  w^ashed  out  from  the  pulp ; spread  it  to  dry  and  har- 
den ; then  put  it  up  in  papers  or  bags  for  future  sowing. 
It  wdll  remain  good  for  many  years ; and  seed  of  three  or 


92 


CUKCULIO. CUIIRANT. 


four  years’  keeping  is  preferable  for  early  frame  crops.” — 
Abercrombie, 

Uses, — Cucumbers  are  a salubrious,  cooling  fruit,  and 
may  be  safely  allowed  to  consumptive  patients,  as  they  sweet- 
en acrid  humours,  at  the  same  time  are  gently  laxative ; but 
being  in  a considerable  degree  acescent,  and  sometimes  at- 
tended with  flatulency  and  diarrhoea,  such  effects  may  be 
prevented  by  eating  them  with  great  moderation  ; or  with 
the  addition  of  vinegar  and  pepper,  which  counteract  their 
natural  coldness.  If  properly  pickled,  (without  coi^uxing 
them  with  that  poisonous  metal,  copper,  or  rendering  them 
too  acrid  with  stimulant  spices,)  they  are  an  excellent  an- 
tiseptic ; yet  we  consider  them  highly  improper  either  for 
children  or  wet  nurses.” — Dom,  Encyc, 

CURCULIO — an  insect  found  in  apples  and  other 
fruits. — See  Insects. 

CURRANT. — Ribes, — There  are  several  species  of  cur- 
rants, of  which  the  principal  are  the  common  red  currant, 
the  white  currant,  and  the  black  currant. 

Soil  and  site, — All  the  sorts  are  very  hardy,  will  gro^v 
freely  and  bear  plentifully,  almost  any  where,  alike  in  open 
and  shady  situations,  by  which  the  fruit  may  be  obtained 
early  in  June  and  July,  and  prolonged  for  several  months 
in  succession  till  October.  As  to  soil,  the  currant  generally 
does  well  in  any  common  garden  ground,  well  tilled  and 
recruited ; it  bears  the  greater  crop  in  a strong  loam,  or 
improved  clay,  somewhat  moist ; the  earlier  in  a sandy  light 
mould,  which  is  not  poor.  Previous  to  planting,  the  ground 
should  be  dug  two  feet  deep. 

The  following  directions  for  the  cultivation  of  the  cur- 
rant are  taken  from  the  Amer,  Phil,  Trans,  vol.  i.  1st  series. 

Plant  them  round  the  quarters  in  the  garden,  that  they 
may  have  the  benefit  of  the  manure  and  culture  annually 
bestowed  thereon,  which  will  consequently  make  the  ber- 
ries large  and  the  juice  rich.  The  red  currant  is  preferable 
to  the  white,  as  yielding  richer  juice,  and  in  much  greater 
quantity. 

‘^Take  the  most  luxuriant  slips  or  shoots  of  a year’s 
growth,  set  them  in  the  ground  about  eight  inches  deep, 
and  not  less  than  twenty-four  inches  distant  from  each 
other : these  never  fail  of  taking  root,  and  generally  begin 
to  bear  in  two  years.  For  the  rest,  let  them,  from  time  to 
time,  be  treated  as  espaliers,  (but  not  against  a wall,)  ob- 
serving to  keep  the  roots  from  suckers  and  grass. 

“ The  goodness  of  the  currant  depends  upon  their  hav- 


CURRANT. 


93 


tng  the  full  benefit  of  the  sun  and  air,  to  maturate  and  give 
the  berries  a proper  balsamic  quality,  by  exhaling  a due 
proportion  of  their  acid  watery  particles.” 

McMahon  observes,  that  “ The  only  proper  method  of 
propagating  gooseberries  and  currants  is  by  cuttings ; suck- 
ers should  never  be  resorted  to,  except  in  cases  of  necessity, 
for  such  will  always  produce  others  numerously  from  their 
roots,  which  carry  ofi*  the  nourishment,  that  ought  to  go 
to  the  support  of  the  fruit ; and,  besides,  they  form  such 
thickets,  as  to  smother,  and  deprive  thern  of  the  benefit  of 
a free  circulating  air. 

“ The  proper  cuttings  for  planting  are  the  shoots  of  the 
last  summer’s  production,  of  straight,  clean  growth ; they 
should  be  taken  from  healthy  trees,  and  such  as  are  re- 
markable, according  to  their  kinds,  for  bearing  the  finest 
fruit;  let  each  be  shortened  from  about  ten  to  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches  long,  according  to  its  strength. 

Previous  to  planting,  cut  off  every  bud  as  close  as  pos- 
sible to  the  shoot,  except  three,  four  or  five,  near  the  top  ; 
which  are  to  be  left  to  form  the  head  of  the  plant.  Some 
people  imagine,  that  the  buds  of  those  parts  inserted  in  the 
earth  grow  into  roots,  which  is  by  no  means  the  case,  na- 
ture never  having  designed  them  for  such ; the  roots,  or 
fibres,  always  strike  out  through  the  clean  and  smooth  bark, 
but  generally  a little  below  a bud,  and  sometimes  at  the 
low^r  extremity  of  the  cutting,  from  between  the  bark  and 
the  wood.”  The  cuttings  may  be  first  planted  in  rows, 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  asunder,  and  about  eight  or 
nine  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  When  they  have  had  one 
or  two  years’  growth  in  these  rows,  they  may  be  planted 
out  either  in  autumn  or  early  in  spring,  where  they  are 
intended  to  produce  fruit.  Dr.  Thacher  directs  to  let 
no  limbs  grow  nearer  than  six  inches  of  tlie  ground.  Prune 
the  shrub  every  year,  and  keep  it  thin  of  wood,  leaving 
the  middle  open  ; the  limbs  extended  ; and,  when  these  get 
about  three  feet  in  length,  cut  off,  every  spring,  all  the  last 
year’s  shoots.  To  cultivate  on  an  extensive  scale  for  the 
purpose  of  making  wine,  set  the  bushes  in  rows,  six  or 
eight  feet  between  each  bush,  with  intervals  of  proper  width, 
and  at  regular  distances  for  passing  across  the  rows.  It  is 
estimated  that  an  acre  w’ell  cultivated  will  probably  yield 
on  an  average  a quantity  of  fruit  sufficient  to  make  one 
thousand  gallons  of  wine  annually.  The  expense  of  ma- 
king this  wine  is  about  fifty  cents  a gallon. 

‘‘  The  common  blaxik  currants  are  larger  than  the  red  or 


94 


CURRANT. 


white,  but  they  have  a peculiar  flavour,  which  to  some 
persons  is  unpleasant ; they  are,  however,  wholesome, 
and  aflord  a juice  which,  when  made  into  syrup  with  su- 
gar, is  much  esteemed  in  sore  throats  and  quinsies.  The 
officinal  black  currant  has  a small  berry,  but  is  highly  valu- 
able as  a medicine  when  made  into  wine.  In  lung  levers, 
putrid  fevers,  and  ulcerous  sore  throats,  and  in  putrid  dys- 
entery, the  medicinal  properties  of  this  wine  are  not  to  be 
surpassed.” — Tkachev’^ s Oichardist^  p.  225. 

The  following  receipt  for  the  manufacture  of  currant 
wine  is  by  Dr.  Grfeen,  of  Mansfield,  Mass. 

Let  the  currants  be  fully  ripe,  and  freed  from  all  leaves, 
Vvebs  of  insects,  and  decayed  or  defective  fruit ; break  and 
press  out  the  juice,  and  to  every  gallon  of  juice  add  two 
gallons  of  water,  and  to  every  g^illon  of  this  mixture  three 
and  one  fourth  pounds  of  good  clean  sugar,  one  gill  of  good 
brandy,  and  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  of  alum  pulverized. 
Mix  well  together,  and  put  the  same  into  a clean  cask. 
To  expedite  the  process,  ascertain  the  number  of  gallons 
the  cask  intended  for  the  wine  will  contain — calculate  the 
proportions  of  the  ingredients — ^put  into  the  cask  the  juice, 
brandy  and  alum — dissolve  the  sugar  in  water,  and  fill  the 
cask,  and  with  a stick  mix  the  whole  together. 

In  the  month  of  March  following,  draw  off  the  wine, 
adding  one  gill  of  brandy  to  a gallon,  and  the  wine  is 
excellent,  and  improves  by  age.  After  the  wine  is  drawn 
olF,  the  residue  may  be  worked  into  vinegar,  or  be  suspend- 
ed in  a thick  bag,  in  a cool  place,  that  the  remaining  wine 
may  filter  Out  and  be  saved.” 

A kind  of  wine  has  been  manufactured  from  the  black 
currant,  by  Samuel  Wyllys  Pomeroy,  of  Brighton,  Mass, 
which  has  been  much  celebrated  for  its  medicinal  proper- 
ties. Dr.  John  G.  Coffin,  editor  of  the  Boston  Medical 
Intelligencer^  says  of  this  wine,  “ It  has  all  the  good 
properties  of  the  best  Port,  without  any  of  its  heating  or 
constipating  effects.  We  could  name  several  instances, 
where,  in  great  debility  and  exhaustion,  after  protracted 
and  severe  fever,  and  from  other  causes,  nothing  else  could 
be  thought  of,  or  taken  with  pleasure  or  advantage,  in  which 
this  wine  proved  grateful  to  the  palate,  and  most  friendly  to 
the  stomach ; in  which,  indeed,  it  was  the  principal  means 
of  conducting  the  patient  to  health  and  strength.” 

Its  exhibition  has  been  attended  with  remarkable  Suc- 
cess in  the  early  stages  of  cholera  and  dysentery, — and 
again  also  in  the  later  stages  of  these  diseases,  after  the 


CUTTINGS,  OR  SLIPS. 


95 


symptoms  of  inAammation  or  febrile  excitement  had  ceased. 
It  has  been  strikingly  remedial  in  the  low  states  of  typhoid 
and  bilious  fever.  The  late  Capt.  Gilchrist,  who  for  several 
years  followed  the  Batavia  trade,  and  who  had  always  suf- 
fered an  attack  of  the  severe  cholera,  which  proves  so 
destructive  of  human  life  in  that  climate,  used  to  say  that 
after  he  liad  this  wine  with  liim,  and  took  two  glasses  of  it 
every  morning,  he  escaped  the  disease.  On  one  voyage,  his 
mate,  wdio  had  not  taken  the  wine,  was  seized  with  this 
complaint,  when  a bottle  or  i\wo  stopped  its  progress.  W e 
have  not  room  to  enumerate  many  other  morbid  affections, 
in  which  this  wine  has  proved  useful.  In  sore  throat  it  has, 
for  many  years,  been  considered  almost  .a  speciAc  reme- 
dy.” 

CUTTINGS,  or  SLIPS. — The  branches,  twigs  or  slips 
of  plants,  shrubs  or  trees,  may,  sometimes  successfully,  be 
cut  off,  and  set  in  the  ground  to  take  root  and  grow.  The 
best  time  for  this  operation  is  from  the  middle  of  August 
to  the  middle  of  April ; but  when  it  is  done,  the  sap  ougsit 
not  to  be  too  much  in  the  top ; neither  must  it  be  very  dry 
or  scanty,  for  the  sap  in  the  branches  assists  it  to  take  root. 

When  you  intend  to  propagate  trees  for  timber,  or  for  a 
tall,  stately  growth,  be  very  particular  never  to  take  the 
cuttings  from  horizontal  branches,  for  they  will  ever  have 
an  inclination  to  grow  in  a spreading  manner  ; always  make 
choice  of  perpendicular  shoots,  and  particularly  those  that 
terminate  the  branches ; these  will  produce  the  straightest 
trees. 

The  power  of  protruding  buds  or  roots  resides  chieAy  at 
the  joints,  or  those  parts  where  leaves  or  buds  already  ex- 
ist. Cuttings  should,  therefore,  be  cut  smoothly  across  at 
an  eye  or  joint.  This  cutting  ought  to  be  made  in  the 
wood  of  the  grow^th  of  the  preceding  season,  or  in  the 
point  between  the  two  growths.  It  is  a common  practice 
to  cut  off  the  whole  or  part  of  the  leaves  of  cuttings,  which 
Loudon  says  is  attended  wdth  bad  effects. 

“ Cuttings  which  are  difficult  to  strike  may  be  rendered 
more  tractable  by  previous  ringing;  if  a ring  be  made  on  the 
shoot  w^hich  is  to  furnish  the  cutting,  a callus  will  be  created, 
which,  if  inserted  in  the  ground  after  the  cutting  is  taken 
off,  will  freely  emit  roots.  A ligature  would,  perhaps, 
operate  in  a similar  manner,  though  not  so  efficiently ; it 
should  lightly  encircle  the  shoot  destined  for  a cutting,  and 
the  latter  should  be  taken  off  when  an  accumulation  of  sap 
has  apparently  been  produced.  The  amputation  in  the  case 


9G 


CUTTINGS,  OR  SLIPS. 


of  the  ligature,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the  ring,  must  he  made  be- 
low the  circles,  and  the  cutting  must  be  so  planted  as  to  have 
the  callus  covered  with  earth.’’ — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iv.  p.558. 

The  insertion  of  the  cuttings  may  seem  an  easy  mat- 
ter, and  none  but  a practical  cultivator  would  imagine  that 
there  could  be  any  difference  in  the  growth,  between  cut- 
tings inserted  in  the  middle  of  a pot,  and  those  inserted  at 
its  sides.  Yet  such  is  actually  the  case,  and  some  sorts  of 
trees,  as  the  orange,  ceratonia,  &c.  if  inserted  in  a mere 
mass  of  earth,  will  hardly,  if  at  all,  throw  out  roots,  while, 
if  they  are  inserted  in  sand,  or  in  earth  at  the  sides  of  the 
pots,  so  as  to  touch  the  pot  in  their  whole  length,  they 
seldom  fail  of  becoming  rooted  plants.  Knight  found  the 
mulberry  strike  very  well  by  cuttings,  when  they  were  so 
inserted,  and  when  their  lower  ends  touched  a stratum  of 
gravel,  or  broken  pots  ; and  Hawkins,  {Hort.  Trans,  vol. 
ii.  p.  12,)  who  had  often  tried  to  strike  orange  trees  with- 
out success,  at  iast  heard  of  a method,  by  which,  at  first 
trial,  eleven  cuttings  out  of  thirteen  grew.  The  art  is  to 
place  them  to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  pot ; they  are  then 
to  be  plunged  in  a bark  or  hot-bed,  and  kept  moist.” 

“The  management  of  cuttings,  after  they  are  planted,  de- 
pends on  the  general  principle,  that,  where  life  is  weak,  all 
excesses  of  exterior  agency  must  have  a tendency  to  render 
it  extinct.  No  cutting  requires  to  be  planted  deep,  though 
such  as  are  large  ought  to  be  inserted  deeper  than  such  as 
are  small.  In  the  case  of  evergreens,  the  leaves  should  be 
kept  from  touching  the  soil,  otherwise  they  will  damp,  and 
rot  off ; and  in  the  case  of  tubular-stalked  plants,  which 
are  in  general  not  very  easily  struck,  owing  to  the  water 
lodging  in  the  tube,  and  rotting  the  cutting,  both  ends  may, 
in  some  cases,  (as  in  common  honey-suckle,)  be  advanta- 
geously inserted  in  the  soil,  and,  besides  a greater  certainty 
success,  two  plants  will  be  produced.  Too  much  light, 
gir,  water,  heat  or  cold,  are  alike  injurious.  To  guard 
against  these  extremes  in  tender  sorts,  the  means  hith- 
eilo  devised  is  that  of  enclosing  an  atmosphere  over  the 
cuttings,  by  means  of  a hand  or  bell-glass,  according  to 
their  d dicacy.  This  preserves  a uniform  stillness  and 
moisture  of  atmosphere.  Immersing  the  pot  in  earth,  (if 
the  cuttings  are  in  pots,)  has  a tendency  to  preserve  a stea- 
dy, uniform  degree  of  moisture  at  the  roots  ; and  shading, 
or  planting  the  cuttings,  if  in  the  open  air,  in  a shady  situa- 
tion, prevents  the  bad  effects  of  excess  of  light.  Th»  only 
method  of  regulating  the  heiit  is  by  double  or  single  cover- 


DANDELION. 


97 


ings  of  glass  or  mats,  or  both.  A hand-glass  placed  over  a 
hell-glass  will  preserve,  in  a shady  situation,  a very  constant 
degree  of  heat.  Whatever  degree  of  heat  is  natural  to  the 
mother  plant,  when  in  a growing  state,  will,  in  general,  be 
most  favourable  to  the  growth  of  cuttings.” — Loudon. 

The  same  writer  says,  “ Every  variety  of  apple  may  be 
grown  from ‘Cuttings ; though  some  with  much  greater  fa- 
cility than  others.  All  those  of  the  burknot  and  codling 
tribes  grow  as  well  this  way  as  by  any  other,  -and  some  al-^ 
lege,  that  the  trees  so  raised  are  not  liable  to  canker,  {Hort. 
Trans,  vol.  i.  p.  120,)  which  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to 
their  ‘ putting  out  no  tap-root,  but  spreading  their  nume- 
rous fibres  from  the  knot  or  bur  horizontally.’  Eveu  the 
golden  pippin  may  be  continued  in  this  way,  and  the  trees 
have  remained  seven  years  in  perfect  health,  when  grafts 
taken  not  only  from  the  same  tree,  but  from  the  very 
branch,  part  of  which  was  divided  into  cuttings,  cankered 
in  two  or  three  years.  ‘ All  apple-trees  raised  in  this  way,* 
Biggs  observes,  ‘ from  healthy  one-year-old  branches,  with 
blossom-buds  upon  them,  will  continue  to  go  on  bearing 
the  finest  fruit,  in  a small  compass,  for  many  years.  Such 
trees  are  peculiarly  proper  for  forcing,  and  not  liable  to 
canker.’ — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  i.  p.  65.  The  cuttings  are  to 
be  chosen  from  the  young  wood  of  horizontal  or  oblique 
branches,  rather  than  from  upright  ones  ; from  six  to  eight 
inches  or  more  in  length,  with  a small  portion  of  old  wood 
at  the  lower  end.  Cut  off  the  tip  of  the  shoot,  and  all  the 
buds,  excepting  two  or  three  next  the  tip  or  upper  extrem- 
ity ; then  smooth  the  sections  at  the  lower  end,  and  insert 
them  three  or  four  inches  in  sandy  loam,  pressing  the  earth 
firmly  to  them,  watering,  and  covering  with  a hand-glass. 
The  proper  time  for  this  operation  is  early  in  February, 
and  the  glass  should  not  be  touched,  excepting  to  give 
water,  till  the  shoots  have  sprung  an  inch  or  two.  Shade 
during  the  mid-day  sun,  and  begin  to  harden  by  giving  air 
in  July ; finally,  remove  the  glass  in  August ; and  in  October 
transplant  to  nursery  rows,  or  in  pots,  according  to  future 
intention.  With  the  burknot  tribe,  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  plant  the  cuttings  in  a shady  border,  and  treat  them  like 
those  of  the  gooseberry  or  currant.” 

DANDELION. — Leontodon  taraxacum. — This  is  a hardy 
perennial  plant,  which  is  found  growing  spontaneously  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  Loudon  says  that  this 
vegetable,  ‘‘  though  regularly  produced  in  London  market, 
is  seldom  or  never  cultivated,  being  generally  to  be  found 
9 


98 


DIBBLE. DILL. 


in  suiiicicnt  luxuriance  by  the  sides  of  hedges  and  dry 
ditches.  It  miglit  easily  be  propagated  either  by  seeds  or 
roots  ; and,  if  introduced  as  a garden  plant,  should  have  a 
rich,  deep  soil,  and  be  carefully  tied  up  and  earthed  round 
to  blanch  it  effectually.  Cut  off  all  the  flowers  as  they 
appear,  to  prevent  the  dispersion  of  the  seed,  and  the  weak- 
ening of  the  plant.  When  salad  is  scarce,  the  dandelion 
might  be  dug  up  from  road-sides  in  winter,  and  forced  in 
pots  like  succory. 

‘‘  Use. — The  leaves  in  early  springy  when  just  unfolding, 
afford  a very  good  ingredient  in  salads.  The  French  some- 
times eat  the  young  roots,  and  the  etiolated  [blanched  or 
whitened]  leaves  with  thin  slices  of  bread  and  butter. 
When  blanched,  the  leaves  considerably  resemble  those  of 
endive  in  taste.  The  root  is  considered  an  equally  good 
substitute  for  coffee  as  chiccory,  and  may,  like  that  plant, 
be  stored  in  cellars  and  barrels,  for  producing  winter  salad.” 
— Caled.  Hort.  Mem.  iv.  138.  In  this  country,  the  dan- 
delion has,  we  believe,  been  used  for  greenSy  or  pot-herbs 
only,  and  we  have  never  known  it  subjected  to  cultivation. 

DIBBLE — a tool  used  by  gardeners  and  farmers  in  Eu- 
rope, chiefly  in  transplanting.  It  consists  of  a stick  about 
a foot  or  eighteen  inches  long,  slightly  sharpened  at  the 
end,  with  which  a hole  is  made  to  receive  the  plant  or 
seed.  It  may  be  made  of  the  upper  part  of  an  old  spade 
or  shovel  handle,  sharpened  a little  at  the  lower  end.  The 
common  dibble  is  about  eighteen  inches  long.  The  long 
dibble,  used  for  potatoes,  is  about  three  and  a half  feet 
long. 

The  following  method  of  making  holes  for  beans  has 
been  recommended,  viz. — Take  a plank  of  oak,  of  such  size 
as  a man  can  easily  manage,  by  a handle  fixed  upright  in 
the  middle  of  it,  and  of  such  thickness  as  not  to  give  way 
k\  working  ; in  the  under  part  of  this  plank  let  there  be 
fixed  wooden  pegs  of  such  length,  and  at  such  distance  from 
each  otiier,  as  may  form  proper  holes  in  the  ground  for  the 
beans : when  the  land  has  been  properly  prepared,  the 
workman  must  thrust  the  pegs  of  this  instrument  into  the 
ground,  and  proceed  sideways,  managing  it  so  that  there 
may  be  the  same  distance  between  the  last  row  of  holes 
made  by  the  first  impression  and  the  first  row  made  by  the 
next,  as  there  is  between  the  rows  of  any  one  impression. 
The  youngest  children  may  be  taught  to  follow  the  instru- 
ment. and  drop  a bean  into  every  hole  that  it  makes. 

DILL. — Auethim  graveolens* — Dill  is  a hardy  biennial 


DRAINS. 


99 


plant,  a native  of  Spain,  somewhat  similar  to  fennel,  but 
smaller.  It  is  raised  from  seed  sown  in  any  of  the 
autumnal  months,  or  very  early  in  the  spring.  Half  an 
ounce  of  seed  is  sufficient  for  a bed  three  feet  by  four  feet. 
McMahon  directs  to  sow  dill  broad-cast  on  four  feet  wide 
beds,  covering  it,  if  sown  in  autumn,  half  an  inch,  and  if 
in  spring,  a quarter  of  an  inch  deep  : when  the  plants  come 
up,  thin  them  to  six  inches  distance,  and  the  same  season 
they  will  perfect  their  seeds;  which,  if  any  are  suffered  to 
shed,  will  not  fail  to  come  up  plentifully  the  next  year. 
The  seeds  and  leaves  of  tliis  plant  are  used  for  giving  a 
flavour  to  pickles,  and  also  occasionally  in  soups  and  sauces. 
It  is  also  used  in  medical  preparations. 

DRAINS. — -Drains  used  in  agriculture  may  be  divided 
into  two  kinds,  open  and  covered.  They  should  be  of  a 
size  and  depth  proportioned  to  the  extent  of  the  tract  which 
it  is  wished  to  drain,  and  the  probable  quantity  of  water  for 
which  they  are  designed  to  be  channels.  They  should, 
generally,  be  carried  through  the  lowest  and  wettest  part 
of  the  soil.  It  is  a rule  in  making  drains,  to  begin  at  the 
lowest  place,  and  work  upwards,  by  which  means  the  water 
will  pass  from  the  workmen,  and  point  out  the  level.  The 
mud  and  other  materials,  which  are  dug  out  of  a ditch  or 
drain,  should  not  be  suffered  to  lie  in  heaps  by  the  side  of 
the  ditch,  but  should  be  spread  as  equally  as  possible  over 
the  surface  of  the  drained  land.  In  some  cases,  it  will  be 
expedient  to  transport  the  earth  taken  from  ditches  to  the 
farm-yard  or  the  hog-pen,  to  form  a part  of  that  layer,  which 
good  farmers  generally  spread  over  those  places,  to  imbibe 
liquid  manure,  or  make  into  compost.  In  many  instances, 
it  is  asserted,  that  the  earth  dug  out  of  ditches,  is  worth 
enough  for  manure,  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  digging  the 
ditches. 

Open  drains  often  answer  the  purpose  not  only  of  con- 
veying off  superfluous  water,  but  serve  for  enclosing  fields. 
But  they  make  a hazardous  and  inconvenient  fence  without 
the  addition  of  a bank,  hedge,  or  railing.  The  Farmer^s 
Assistant  says,  When  a ditch  is  made  for  a fence,  it  ought 
to  be  four  feet  wide  at  the  top,  one  or  less  at  the  bottom, 
and  about  two  and  a half  deep ; with  the  earth  all  thrown 
out  on  one  side,  and  banked  up  as  high  as  possible.”  Sir 
John  Sinclair  states,  that  it  is  a general  rule,  regarding 
open  drains,  with  a view  of  giving  sufficient  slope  and  sta- 
bility to  their  sides,  that  the  width  at  top  should  be  three 
times  as  much  as  that  which  is  necessary  at  the  bottom  ; and. 


100 


DRAINS. 


in  the  case  of  peat  mosses,  or  soft  soils,  it  should  be  such 
as  to  allow  the  water  to  run  off  without  stagnation,  hut  not 
with  so  rapid  a motion  as  to  injure  the  bottom.” 

The  American  editor  of  Sir  John  Sinclair’s  Code  of  Ag- 
riculture observes,  that  The  most  expeditious,  effectual, 
and  economical  mode  of  making  a drain  would  undoubtedly 
be,  to  use  oxen,  and  a scraper^  or  ox-shovel,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,— an  instrument  well  known  in  this  country  in 
the  making  of  roads.  In  some  cases,  this  mode  might  not 
answer,  as  in  very  miry  grounds,  and  lands  just  cleared  of 
timber.  But  where  lands  are  very  miry,  if  the  process  is  be- 
gun at  the  outlet  of  the  water, — and  there,  indeed,  it  ought 
always  to  be  begun,— the  next  adjoining  portion  will,  gene- 
rally, be  made  so  dry  as  to  allow  being  trodden  upon  in  a 
proper  season  ; and  in  this  way  a drain  may  by  degrees  be 
carried  on  towards  the  centre.  In  nineteen  cases  out  of 
twenty,  drains  may  probably  be  effected  in  this  mode.  Where 
the  ground  will  admit  of  it,  two  men  and  a boy,  and  two 
yoke  of  oxen,  will  accomplish  more  business  of  this  sort  in 
a day,  than  half  a dozen  men  in  the  same  time,  with  only 
f^pades  and  shovels.  Wherever  the  labour  of  cattle  can  be 
Mibstituled  in  this  country  for  human  labour,  policy  requires 
it  to  be  done.  The  surface  of  wet  and  miry  land  is  usually 
full  of  inequalities ; if  a scraper  is  employed  in  draining 
them,  the  earth  taken  from  the  drain  is  easily  landed  in  any 
hollow  spot  which  needs  to  be  filled ; and  if  there  are  no 
such  hollows,  or  they  have  already  been  filled,  the  earth 
may  be  spread  over  the  surface  in  such  a manner  as  to  do 
the  most  good.  If  the  earth  is  not  wanted  for  other  pur- 
poses, it  is  recommended  to  drop  and  spread  it,  if  practi- 
cable, in  such  a manner  as  to  leave  the  general  surface  of 
the  land  sloping  towards  the  drain,  that  the  water  may  the 
more  readily  incline  towards  it,  and  pass  off.  At  some  dis- 
tance below  the  surface,  in  peat  grounds,  there  is  usually 
found  a hard  stratum  of  earth,  called,  in  the  common  lan- 
guage of  our  farmers,  hard  pan.  The  hard  pan,  if  ploughed 
into,  scraped  out,  and  spread  on  the  surface,  would  greatly 
improve  the  texture  of  such  soils.  This  furnishes  another 
argument  in  favour  of  using  a scraper  in  draining,  for  in 
no  other  way  can  the  upper  earth,  taken  out  of  the  drains, 
be  so  cheaply  removed,  and  put  on  the  adjoining ; nor  in 
any  other  way  can  the  hard  pan  be  so  easily  broken  up  and 
carried  off ; nor  in  any  other  way,  oftentimes,  can  suitable 
earth  be  so  well  obtained,  for  the  purpose  of  spreading  it 
over  the  surface  with  a view  to  improve  the  texture  of  the 


DI1AIN9. 


101 


soil.  If  the  object  be  to  pile  the  eartli  from  the  drains  into 
heaps,  with  a view  to  composts,  this  purpose  is  completely 
accomplished  by  means  of  the  scraper.” 

To  make  a covered  drain,  dig  a channel  between  thirty 
and  thirty-six  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  six  inches,  or  the 
breadth  of  a spade,  at  the  bottom,  and  three  feet  deep,  giv- 
ing it  just  descent  enough  to  make  the  water  run  briskly. 
Fill  it  half  full  or  more  of  small  stones,  thrown  in  at  ran- 
dom, and  cover  them  with  a layer  of  straw,  leaves,  or  tlie 
small  branches  of  trees  with  the  leaves  on  them  ; then  fill 
it  up  to  a level  with  the  surface,  with  the  earth  that  was 
thrown  out.  ' 

In  forming  small  drains,  chiefly  for  retentive  soils,  the 
eommon  plough  may  be  used.  A mode  described  in 
Voungh  Annals  of  Agriculture^  from  very  ample  practice,  is 
his  : he  says,  when  he  has  marked  the  drains  in  a field, 
usually  a rod  asunder,  he  draws  two  furrows  with  a com- 
mon plough,  leaving  a balk  betwixt  them,  about  fifteen 
inches  wide  ; then,  with  a strong,  double-breasted  plough, 
made  on  purpose,  he  splits  that  balk,  and  leaves  a clean 
furrow  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  below  the  surface ; but 
where  the  depth  of  soil  requires  it,  by  a second  ploughing 
he  sinks  it  to  eighteen  or  twenty  inches ; it  is  then  ready 
for  the  land-ditching  spade,  with  which  he  digs,  fifteen 
inches  deep,  a drain  as  narrow  as  possible.  But  the  method 
followed  by  some  farmers,  who  do  not  possess  ploughs  made 
on  purpose  for  the  work,  is  this : with  their  common 
plough,  drawn  by  four  or  five  horses,  and  usually  stirring 
about  four  or  five  inches  deep,  they  turn  a double  furrow, 
throwing  the  earth  on  each  side,  and  leaving  a balk  in  the 
middle.  This  balk  they  raise  by  a second  bout,  in  the 
same  manner ; then  they  go  in  the  open  furrow  twice,  with 
their  common  double-breast  plough,  getting  what  depth  they 
can.  After  this,  they  shovel  out  all  the  loose  mould  and 
inequalities  to  the  breadth  of  about  a foot ; and  thus  hav  ing 
gained  a clear,  open  furrow,  the  depth  varying  according 
to  the  soil  and  ploughs,  but  usually  about  eight  or  nine 
inches,  they  dig  one  spit  with  a draining  spade  sixteen 
inches  deep,  thus  gaining  in  the  whole  twenty-four  or 
twenty-six  inches.  But  as  this  depth  is  seldom  sufficient, 
when  necessary,  they  throw  out  another,  or  even  two  other 
spits,  which  makes  the  whole  depth  from  thirty  to  forty 
inches. — Loudon. 

Turf-covered  drains  may  be  made  as  follows  : — Turn  up  a 
(fcep  furrow  with  a strong  plough,  clear  the  sod  from  the 


102 


DUCK. 


earth  thus  turned  up,  reduce  it  to  about  three  inches  in 
thickness,  and  then  place  it  in  the  furrow  from  whence  it 
was  taken.  The  grassy  side  being  placed  uppermost,  there 
is  a hollow  beneath,  sufficient  to  discharge  a considerable 
quantity  of  surface  water,  which  readily  sinks  into  it. 
This  mode  of  draining  is  used  on  the  sheep  farms  of  the 
Cheviot  Hills  in  England,  and  is  recommended  by  Sir  John 
Sinclair.  It  would  not  answer,  however,  in  lands  exposed 
to  the  tread  of  heavy  cattle,  as  they  would  be  apt  to  push 
their  feet  through  a covering  of  turf  of  no  more  than  three 
or  four  inches.  Perhaps,  in  a few  years,  the  verdure  would 
thicken,  and  the  sward  strengthen  over  drains  of  this  kind, 
so  that  there  would  be  nothing  to  apprehend  from  the  tread 
of  the  heaviest  animals. 

Cultivation  of  drained  land, — It  is  well  known  that 
swamps,  marshes,  and  other  low  lands  are  commonly  places 
of  deposit  for  the  lighter  and  more  fertile  parts  of  the  soil, 
washed  from  the  neighbouring  hills.  Many  marshes  are 
in  fact  intervale  land,  naturally  too  wet  for  profitable  culti- 
vation. Wet  lands,  which  receive  the  wash  of  higher 
grounds  of  a tolerable  quality,  may  be  expected  to  be  worth 
considerable  expense  in  draining.  A bog,  however,  on  the 
top  of  a hill,  not  overlooked  by  high  ground,  we  should 
suspect  of  barrenness,  and  would  not  be  at  great  expense 
in  draining  it,  without  examining  and  analyzing  the  soil  in 
various  parts,  and  becoming  satisfied  of  its  fertility.  But  a 
drained  marsh,  which  can  be  flooded  at  the  will  of  its 
owner,  by  means  of  a dam  at  its  outlet,  with  water  which 
has  washed  the  neighbouring  uplands,  may  be  considered 
as  inexhaustible,  and,  perhaps,  had  better  be  appropriated 
to  the  raising  of  hemp.  That  plant  exhausts  the  soil  very 
much,  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  good  economy  to  raise  it 
where  the  land  can  be  recruited  without  manure  from  the 
farm-yard,  &c.  If  the  land  is  rich,  not  very  dry,  or  water 
can  be  set  back  in  the  ditches,  in  a dry  time,  to  within 
three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface,  it  will  be  quite  an  object 
to  introduce  fowl  meadow,  {Agrostis  stricta,) 

It  is  often  advisable  to  let  drained  lands  lie  over  one  sum- 
mer to  ferment  and  rot,  before  any  attempt  to  cultivate 
them.  Flooding  them  completely  in  the  winter,  and  draw- 
ing the  water  quite  off  rather  late  in  the  spring,  will  like- 
wise assist  in  rotting  the  sod. 

DUCK. — ‘‘Ducks  are  excellent  vermin  pickers,,  whether 
of  caterpillars,  (such  as  are  within  their  reach,)  slugs, 
snails  and  others  ; and  ought  to  be  turned  into  the  garden 


EGG-PLANT. ELDER. 


103 


one  or  two  days  every  week,  throughout  the  season. 
Never  keep  them  longer  in  than  two  or  three  days  at  a 
time,  else  they  tire  of  their  food,  and  become  indolent.  While 
here,  they  should  be  offered  no  food,  but  may  have  a little 
water  set  down  to  them,  if  there  be  no  pond  or  stream  in 
the  garden. 

“ They  are  very  fond  of  ripe  strawberries  or  gooseber- 
ries ; and,  while  they  can  get  at  these,  will  seek  little  after 
snails,  or  other  insects ; but  they  are  most  useful  before 
these  come  into  season  for  them.  There  are  some  kinds 
of  vegetables  they  have  a liking  to,  and  on  which  they  will 
fall,  if  vermin  be  any  wise  scarce  ; therefore,  when  this  is 
perceived,  they  should  be  turned  out.  Never  turn  them 
into  the  garden  in  the  time  of  heavy  rains,  or  in  continued 
wet  weather  ; as,  in  that  case,  and  particularly  if  the  soil 
be  stiff,  they  patter  and  harden  the  surface,  to  the  great  in- 
jury of  small  crops,  and  rising  seeds.” — Nicol, 

EGG-PLANT. — Solanum  melongena, — “ There  are  two 
varieties  of  this  plant,  the  white-fruited  and  the  purple,  cul- 
tivated for  culinary  purposes ; the  latter  kind  is  preferable, 
and,  when  sliced  and  nicely  fried,  approaches,  both  in  taste 
and  flavour,  nearer  to  that  of  a very  nice  fried  oyster,  than, 
perhaps,  any  other  plant. 

“ This  delicious  vegetable  may  be  propagated  by  sowing 
the  seed  on  a slight  hot-bed,  the  beginning  of  April,  or  in 
March ; and  towards  the  latter  part  of  May,  they  should  be 
planted  in  a rich,  warm  piece  of  ground,  at  the  distance  of 
two  feet  and  a half  asunder,  every  way,  for  the  purple,  or 
two  feet  for  the  white  kind ; and  if  kept  clean,  and  a little 
earth  be  drawn  up  to  their  stems,  when  about  a foot  high, 
they  will  produce  plenty  of  fruit.  Or,  the  seed  may  be 
sown  about  the  end  of  April,  on  a warm  border,  and  planted 
out  finally  the  beginning  of  June ; but  these  will  be  rather 
late,  and  not  produce  fruit  so  abundantly,  in  the  Middle  or 
Eastern  States,  as  by  the  former  method.” — McMahon. 

ELDER. — Sambucus  nigra, — This  shrub  grows  plentifully 
in  most  or  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  too  well 
known  to  need  description.  Something,  however,  may  be 
said  with  regard  to  its  uses,  some  of  which  may  not  be  so 
well  known. 

This  tree,  professor  Martyn  observes,  is  a whole  maga- 
zine of  physic  to  rustic  practitioners,  nor  is  it  quite  neg- 
lected by  more  regular  ones.  An  excellent  healing  oint- 
ment is  made  of  the  green,  inner  bark,  which  is  also  purga- 
tive in  moderate,  and  diuretic  in  small  doses.  A decoction 


104 


ELECAMPANE. 


f the  flowers  promotes  expectoration  and  persprratioRj;  an^ 
they  give  a peculiar  flavour  to  vinegar.  The  flowers  are 
reported  to  be  fatal  to  turkeys,  and  the  berries  to  poultry  in 
general.  No  quadruped  will?  eat  the  leaves  of  this  tree  ; 
notwithstanding  it  has  its  own  phaltBna  and  aphis.  The 
wood  is  used  by  the  turner  and  mathematical  instrument 
maker ; and  is  made  into  skewers  for  butchers,  tops,  an- 
gling rods,  and  needles  for  weaving  nets.’^ — Loudon. 

Willich  says,  “ The  leaves  are  eaten  by  sheep,  to  which 
it  is  of  great  service,  when  diseased  with  the  rot  j for,  if 
placed  in  a situation  where  they  can  easily  reach  the  bark 
and  young  shoots,  they  will  speedily  cure  themselves.” 

The  expressed  juice  of  elder  leaves,  it  is  said,  will  kill 
skippers  in  cheese,  bacon,  &c. ; and  strong  decoctions  of  it, 
poured  or  sprinkled  over  plants,  are  said  to  be  fatal  to  insects. 

In  Europe,  this  shrub  is  sometimes  propagated,  but  in 
this  country,,  to  destroy  it  is  commonly  an  object  of  more 
consequence  to  the  cultivator.  It  was  remarked  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Jared  Elliot,  in  his  Essays  on  Field  Husbandry^  that 

Elder  bushes  are  stubborn  and  hard  to  subdue,  yet  I know 
by  experience  that  mowing  them  five  times  a year  will  kill 
them.” 

To  make  elder-berry  wme^ — One  bushel,  when  picked  from 
the  stalks,  produces  three  gallons,  or  upwards,  of  berries  ; 
put  these  to  seven  gallons  of  soft  water  j after  standing  forty- 
eight  hours,  put  them  into  the  copper,  let  them  boil  one 
hour,  then  press  the  juice  through  a coarse  cloth ; then  put 
the  liquor  into  your  copper  again,  with  twenty  pounds  of 
raw  sugar,  half  a pound  of  Jamaica  ginger,  bruised,  one 
ounce  of  cloves,  and  one  ounce  of  allspice.  Boil  the  whole 
together  one  hour,  then  put  it  into  a tub,  and,  when  cold 
enough,  add  some  good  yest  spread  on  a toast,  and  in  two 
days  put  it  all  into  a cask,  and  lay  the  bung  lightly  on  for 
two  months  ; then  add  one  quart  of  brandy  ; this  wine  will 
keep  for  several  years. 

ELECAMPANE. — Inula, — This  plant  is  found  wild  in 
moist  pastures,  both  in  Europe  and  America.  It  may  be 
propagated  either  by  seeds,  sown  in  October,  or  offsets, 
which,  if  carefully  taken  from  the  old  roots,  with  a bud  or 
eye  to  each,  will  take  root  freely.  McMahon  directs  to  set 
such  oflfsets  in  rows,  about  a foot  asunder,  and  the  same 
distance  plant  from  plant  in  the  rows.  They  will  be  fit  for 
use  after  two  years’  growth,  but  will  abide  many  years  if 
permitted  to  stand.  But  young  roots  are  preferable  to  those 
which  are  old,  as  they  become  tough  and  stringy  by  age. 


ENDIVE. 


105 


Use, — This  is  a plant  of  some  repute  in  medicine.  It  is 
said  to  strengthen  the  stomach  and  promote  perspiration. 
An  infusion  of  the  roots,  sweetened  with  honey,  is  useful  in 
hooping  cough.  If  liberally  taken,  they  are  diuretic, 
and  said  to  be  of  great  service  in  removing  visceral  obstruc- 
tions, A decoction  of  this  plant  has  been  employed  by 
farmers  for  the  cure  of  scab  in  sheep ; and  externally  ap- 
plied for  removing  disorders  of  the  skin.  The  fresh  roots 
beaten  in  a mortar,  with  new  butter,  and  applied  externally, 
are  said  to  cure  the  itch,  scald  head,  &c. 

ENDIVE. — Cichorium  cndivia, — The  endive  is  a hardy 
annual,  a native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  introduced  into 
Great  Britain  in  1548.  The  varieties  are 

Green  cuHed  lea^^S;  j White  curled  leaves,  | Broad-leaved  Batavian, 

Estimate  of  sorts, — ‘‘All  the  sorts  are  eligible  for  culture; 
but  allot,  principally,  the  green  curled  for  the  main  crops 
of  autumn  and  winter  endive,  this  being  of  the  most  stocky, 
full  growth,  and  hardiest  to  stand  severe  weather.  As  to 
the  others,  allot  a smaller  portion  of  the  white  curled  for 
early  summer  and  autumn  use : of  the  broad-leaved  kind, 
provide  a moderate  crop  for  autumn,  till  November  or  De- 
cember ; being  by  some  esteemed  preferable  for  stews  and 
soups,  though  not  much  used  in  salads.” 

Propagation, — All  the  varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  of 
which,  for  a seed-bed  four  feet  by  ten  in  length,  half  an 
ounce  is  sufficient. 

Times  of  sowing, — The  proper  seasons  are,  May,  for  a 
smaller  early  crop ; and  principally  June  and  July  to  the 
beginning  of  August;  for  full  and  successive  crops,  all  autumn 
and  winter,  till  the  following  spring.  For,  if  sown  earlier 
than  the  middle  of  May,  or  beginning  of  June,  they  will 
mostly  run  to  stalk  the  same  season,  before  attaining  mature, 
useful  gro\vth.  If  any  are  required  for  early  young  summer 
endive,  sow  only  a small  portion  of  the  white  curled  in 
April  or  May,  as  the  plants  will  soon  run  to  seed.  In  the 
middle,  or  towards  the  end  of  May,  you  may  begin  sowing 
moderately  of  the  different  sorts  ; but  do  not  sow  fully  tiL 
nearly  the  middle  of  June,  that  the  plants  may  stand  with  • 
out  running  to  seed  the  same  year.  About  the  twelfth  anu 
twenty-fifth  of  that  month,  also  at  the  beginning  and  middle 
of  July,  sow  the  main  and  successive  crops,  for  autumn  and 
winter ; and  a finer,  smaller  solving  about  the  beginning  of 
August,  for  late  supplies  in  the  end  of  winter  and  following 
spring. 

Cidtwre  in  the  seed-bed, — “ Sow  each  sort  separately  in 


106 


ENDIVE. 


beds  of  rich,  mellow  earthy  in  an  open  situation^  scattering 
the  seeds  thinly^  and  rake  in  the  seed.  When  the  plants 
are  up  an  inch  or  two  in  growth,  thin  them  moderately, 
where  in  clusters,  that  they  may  have  room  to  grow 
stronger  and  stocky,  for  transplanting.  But  if  a portion  are 
sown  in  soil  of  sufficient  depth,  and  thinned  to  the  distances 
mentioned  under  transplanting ^ instead  of  bemg  moved, 
they  may  be  expected  to  produce  heads  of  the  finest  kind, 
under  the  same  culture  as  is  given  to  the  others. 

Transplanting. — As  the  plants  attain  a sufficient  growth, 
being  from  four  to  six  inches  high,  or  in  a month  or  five 
weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing,  proceed  to  transplant  the 
successive  crops.  The  ground  should  be  light  and  rich,  on 
a dry  sub-soiL  Dig  it  a fuU  spit  deep set  in  shallow 
trenches  or  drills  the  depth  of  a hoe,  endive  blanches  with 
less  trouble  than  if  inserted  on  a level  surface.  The  lines 
may  be  fifteen  inches  sounder  i the  plants  ten  or  twelve 
inches  distant  in  the  lipes.  Drawing  the  strongest  first, 
plant  out  portions  from  June  to  October but  the  principal 
removals  will  fall  in  August,  in  which  month  three  different 
plantings  may  be  made  for  succession  ^ also  for  a general 
winter  crop,  at  the  beginning  of  September.  While  the 
plants  are  in  hand,  trim  the  extremities  of  the  leaves,  and 
shorten  the  tap  roots  a little  ; water  at  planting,,  and  mode- 
rately afterwards,  once  in  two  days,  if  the  weather  be  dry, 
till  the  plants  take  root-  At  the  end  of  September,  and 
in  October,  likewise,  plant  some  in  a warm,  dry  border,  top 
stand  the  winter  more  effectually.  Also,  in  the  last  fort- 
night of  October  or  beginning  of  November,  it  would  be 
proper  to  insert  some  stout  plants,  thickly,  on  a bank  of 
dry,  light  soil,  raised  a foot  or  two  behind,  sloping  to  the 
south.  Thus  they  will  remain  drier  in  winter,  and  will  be 
preserved  moi;e  securely  from  rotting  in  that  season.  The 
bed  might  also  be  defended,  in  very  severe  weather,  with 
frames  and  glasses,  or  with  an  occasional  awning  of  mats 
or  sail  cloth. 

Blanching. — As  the  transplanted  crops  advance  to  full 
growth,  stocky  and  full  in  the  heart,  some  should  have  the 
leaves  tied  up  every  week  or  fortni^t,  to  blanch  or  whiten, 
and  to  render  them  tender,  crisp,  and  mild-tasted.  Perform 
this  in  dry  days,  and  in  winter,  when  the  weather  is  dry 
without  frost.  Using  strings  of  fresh  bass,  or  small  osier 
twigs,  tie  the  leaves  regularly  together,  a little  above  the 
middle,  moderately  close.  If  the  soil  be  light  and  dry, 
earth  them  up  half  way  ^ but  if  moist,  merely  tie  them. 


ESPALIERS. 


107 


The  two  curled  sorts,  if  neatly  earthed  up,  will  blanch  pret^ 
tr  well  without  being  tied.  The  Batavian,  from  its  loftier, 
Sooser  growth,  in  every  case  hearts  and  blanches  better 
with  a bandage.  The  blanching  will  be  completed  some- 
times in  a week,  when  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry ; at 
<»thers,  it  may  take  a fortnight  or  three  weeks  ; after  which 
the  endive  should  be  taken  up  for  use,  or  it  will  soon  rot, 
in  six  days  or  less,  especially  if  much  rain  fall.  To  save 
the  trouble  of  tying,  this  esculent  is  also  occasionally 
blanched  by  setting  up  fiat  tiles,  or  boards,  on  each  side  of 
the  plants,  which,  resting  against  each  other  in  an  angular 
form,  and  confined  with  earthy  exclude  the  light.  Further, 
endive  may  be  blanched  under  garden-pots  or  blanching- 
pots,  in  the  manner  of  sea-kale.  In  the  heat  of  summer 
and  autumn,  tying  up  is  best ; but  in  wet  or  cold  weather, 
to  cover  the  plants  preserves  while  it  blanches  them. 

Occasional  shelter, — At  the  approach  of  severe  frost, 
cover  some  thickly  with  straw  litter.  Also  plunge  a por- 
tion into  a raised  bank  of  lightj  dry  earth,  under  a ^ass 
case,  or  covered  shed,  open  to  the  south.  Protect  with 
litter  in  rigorous  weather  ; but  uncover^  and  give  plenty  of 
air,  on  mild  days. 

To  save  seed, — “ Allot  some  of  the  strongest  old  plants 
in  February  or  March,  if  any  remain ; otherwise,  sow  seed 
in  March  or  April,  and  transplant  or  thin  the  plants  to  twelve 
or  fifteen  inches  distance.  They  will  shoot,  and  the  seed 
ripen  in  autumn. 

Use, — “ It  is  cultivated  for  the  stocky  head  of  leaves, 
which,  after  being  blanched  to  take  away  the  bitter  taste, 
are  used  in  salads  and  stews.” — Loudon, 

ESPALIERS. — Espaliers  iii  horticulture  are  rows  of 
trees,  planted  in  gardens  or  hedges,  and  trained  to  rails, 
lattices  or  treflises  of  wood  work,  &c. 

• The  trees  chiefly  planted  for  espaliers  are,  apples,  pears, 
and  plums.  Espalier  rails  are  substitutes  for  walls,  and 
w'hich  they  so  far  resemble,  that  the  trees  are  regularly 
spread  and  trained  along  them,  are  fully  exposed  to  the 
light,  and,  having  their  branches  fixed,  are  less  liable  to  be 
injured  by  high  winds.  They  may  be  made  of  wood,  cast 
iron,  or  \idre  and  wood. 

Ah  espalier  has  this  advantage  over  a wall  tree,  that, 
as  being  wholly  detached,  the  branches  have  liberty  to  form 
fruit  spurs  on  both  sides,  which,  in  the  wall  tree  cannot  be 
effected  but  on  one ; in  fact,  comnion  fruit  walls  are  un- 
necessary in  the  United  States,  except  in  the  Eastern 


108 


FENNEL. 


and  some  of  the  Middle  States,  where  they  are  useful  i- 
forwarding,  to  due  perfection  and  flavour,  some  late  kinds 
of  superior  peaches,  grapes,  and  other  late  fruits ; but  when 
walls  are  built  for  other  purposes,  and  are  conveniently 
situated,  advantage  ought  to  be  taken  of  them  for  raising 
fruit ; observing  to  suit  the  various  kinds  to  the  various 
aspects.  ” — McMahon. 

FENNEL. — Anethum  f(£niculum. — The  fennel  is  a per- 
ennial plant,  naturalized  in  England,  and  found  in  chalky 
soils.  The  plant  rises  with  finely  cut  leaves,  and  capillary 
leaflets,  on  a smooth,  dark-green,  branched,  tubular  stalk, 
to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet.  On  the  summit  are  pro- 
duced umbels  of  gold-coloured  flowers,  in  July  and  August 
The  whole  plant  is  aromatic,  and  has  long  been  an  inmate 
of  the  garden. 

“ Use. — The  tender  stalks  of  common  fennel  are  used  in 
salads ; the  leaves,  boiled,  enter  into  many  fish  sauces ; 
and,  raw,  are  garnishes  for  several  dishes,  The  blanched 
stalks  of  the  variety  called  Jinochio  are  eaten  with  oil,  vine^ 
gar,  and  pepper,  as  a cold  salad,  and  they  are  likewise 
sometimes  put  into  soups. 

“ The  varieties  are — 

T lie  common,  or  sweet, 

'Jark-CTeeu-leaved, 

Dwarf,  or  finochio.  This  variety 
is  characterized  by  a tendency  in 
the  stalk  to  swell  to  a consider- 
able thickness.  This  thickened 
part  is  blanched  by  earthing  up, 
and  is  then  very  tender.  ^ Ow- 


ing to  the  peculiar  nature  of  this  va- 
riety,^ Neill  observes,  ^ it  is  more 
tender  than  the  common  fennel,  and 
often  perishes  in  the  course  of  the 
winter.  Misled  by  this  circum^ 
stance,  several  horticultural  writers 
describe  it  as  an  annual  species,  un- 
der the  appellation  A,  s^getumJ 


‘‘  Propagation. — They  are  all  raised  from  seed,  of  which 
half  an  ounce  is  sufficient  for  a seed-hed  four  feet  by  six 
feet.  Sometimes,  also,  they  are  raised  from  offsets  from  the 
old  plants,  where  only  a few  are  wanted.  ‘ Sow  in  thp 
spring  in  light  earth,  either  in  drills  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  apart,  or  broad-cast  and  raked  in.  When  the  plants 
are  three  or  four  inches  high,  thin  or  transplant  a quantity 
fifteen  inches  asunder.  As  the  roots  of  old  plants  divide 
into  side  offsets,  these  may  be  slipped  off*  in  spring,  sum- 
mer, or  autumn,  and  planted  a foot  apart.  They  will  pro- 
duce immediate  leaves  for  present  supply,  and  in  continu- 
ance ; or,  for  an  immediate  larger  supply  of  leaves,  you  may 
procure  some  established  full  roots,  and  plant  as  above  : let 
them  be  well  watered.’ 

Subsequent  culture. — ^ The  same  plants  remain  several 
years  by  the  root ; but  as  fennel  sends  up  strong  stems  for 


FLOWElta, 


109 


seed  in  summen  these,  or  a part  of  them,  should  be  cut 
down,  to  encourage  a production  of  young  leaves  below,  in 
succession.  It  is  apt  to  spread  more  than  is  desirable,  ff 
suffered  to  seed.  The  swelling  stems  of  the  finochio  varie- 
ty, when  of  some  tolerable  substance,  should  be  earthed  up 
on  each  side  five  or  six  inches,  to  blanch  them  white  and 
tender.  This  will  be  effected  in  ten  days  or  a fortnight ; 
and,  by  successive  sowings,  or  cutting  down  plants  during 
summer,  successive  crops  of  blanched  stalks  may  be  had 
from  June  to  December.’ 

To  save  seed, — ‘Permit  some  of  the  best  stalks  to  shoot; 
they  will  produce  large  umbels  of  seed  in  autumn.’ — Jl6er- 

FLOWERS,  ORNAMENTAL.— Should  the  agricul- 
turist have  no  taste  for  ornamental  gardening,  yet  such  is 
the  laudable  taste  of  the  fair  daughters  of  America,  at  the 
present  day,  that  there  are  but  comparatively  few,  that 
do  not  take  an  interest  in  a flower  garden.  And  this 
alone  is  a sufficient  reason  for  the  publication  of  these 
remarks. 

Horticulture,  as  it  respects  ornamental  gardening,  is 
one  of  the  most  innocent,  the  most  Jiealthy,  and,  to  some,  the 
most  pleasing  employment  in  life.  The  rural  scenes  which 
it  affords  are  instructive  lessons,  tending  to  moral  and  social 
virtue ; teaching  us  to  “ look  through  nature  up  to  nature’s 
God.” 

Flower  gardens  were  ever  held  in  high  estimation  by 
persons  of  taste.  Emperors  and  kings  have  been  delighted 
with  the  expansion  of  flowers.  “ Consider  the  lilies  of  the 
field^^^  said  an  exalted  personage,  ‘^hoto  they  grow  for 
Solomon,  when  clothed  in  the  purple  of  royalty,  “ was  not 
arrayed  like  one  of  these."^^  Nature,  in  her  gay  attire, 
unfolds  to  view  a vast  variety,  which  is  pleasing  to  the  hu- 
man mind  ; and  consequently  has  a tendency  to  tranquillize 
the  agitated  passions,  and  exhilarate  the  man,  nerve  the 
imagination,  and  render  all  around  him  delightful. 

The  cultivation  of  flowers  is  an  employment  adapted  to 
every  grade,  the  high  and  the  low,  the  rich  and  the  poor ; 
but  especially  to  those  who  have  retired  from  the  busy 
scenes  of  active  life.  Man  was  never  made  to  rust  out  in 
idleness;  A degree  of  exercise  is  as  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  health,  both  of  body  and  mind,  as  food. 
And  what  exercise  is  more  fit  for  him,  who  is  in  the  decline 
of  life,  than  that  of  superintending  a well  ordered  garden  ? 
Wha<^  more  enlivens  the  sinking  mind  ? What  more  invigor 
10 


110 


FLOWERS 


rates  the  feeble  fiame  ? What  is  more  conducive  to  a long 
lifel 

Floriculture  is  peculiarly  calculated  for  the  amusement 
of  youth.  It  may  teach  them  many  important  lessons. 
Let  a piece  of  ground  be  appropriated  to  their  use — to  im- 
prove in  such  a manner  as  their  inclinations  shall  dictate — 
to  cultivate  such  plants  as  are  pleasing  to  their  taste;  and 
let  them  receive  the  proceeds.  Let  order  and  neatness 
pervade  their  little  plantations.  Let  them  be  instructed, 
that  nothing  valuable  is  to  be  obtained  or  preserved  without 
labour,  care,  and  attention — that  as  every  valuable  plant  must 
be  defended,  and  every  noxious  weed  removed,  so  every 
moral  virtue  must  be  protected,  and  every  corrupt  passion 
and  propensity  subdued. 

The  cirltivation  of  flowers  is  an  appropriate  amusement 
for  young  ladies.  It  teaches  neatness,  cultivates  a correct 
taste,  and  furnishes  the  mind  with  many  pleasing  ideas. 
The  delicate  form  and  features,  the  mildness  and  sympathy 
of  disposition,  render  them  fit  subjects  to  raise  those  tran- 
scendent beauties  of  nature,  which  declare  the  “per- 
fections of  the  Creator’s  power.”  The  splendid  lus- 
tre and  variegated  hues  (which  bid  defiance  to  the 
pencil)  of  the  rose,  the  lily,  the  tulip,  and  a thousand 
others,  harmonize  with  the  fair,  fostering  hand  that  tends 
them — with  the  heart  susceptible  to  the  noblest  impres- 
sions— and  with  spotless  innocence. 

Situation, — As  to  the  proper  situation  for  a garden,  it  is 
not  always  in  our  power  to  choose.  A level  plat,  however, 
is  to  be  preferred ; for,  if  there  be  considerable  descent,  the 
heavy  rains  will  wash  away  the  soil.  A southern  aspect, 
sheltered  from  the  north  and  north-west  winds,  is  a proper 
situation  for  most  plants.  An  inclination  towards  the  north, 
or  west,  or  any  point  between  them,  should,  if  possible,  be 
avoided. 

Soil, — The  natural  soil  should  be  a deep  loam,  which  is 
easily  made  rich  by  old,  rotten  manure.  But  here,  again,  it 
IS  not  always  in  our  power  to  choose  such  a^soil.  In  such 
cases  we  must  endeavour  to  imitate — we  must  dig  and  carry 
off — and  bring  on  loam,  &c.  and  make  a rich  soil.  The 
ground  ought  to  be  well  pulverized  with  the  plough  or  the 
spade.  In  a word,  what  is  wanted,  is  a deep,  rich  soil, 
natural  or  artificial,  not  too  wet,  nor  too  dry. 

The  ground  in  a garden  must  be  kept  rich,  and  often 
stirred.  It  ought  to  be  manured  every  year.  A compost 
made  of  decayed  vegetables,  yard  manure,  rotten  leaves, 


M.0VVKii5. 


in 


ashes,  aud  mould  iVom  any  place,  where  it  can  be  had,  is 
proper  for  a garden.  A garden  should  be  well  defended, 
by  a high  and  tight  fence,  especially  on  the  north  and  west. 

Soxing  and  'planting, — In  the  lirst  place,  the  ground  must 
be  made  fine,  as  well  as  rich.  It  should  be  moderately 
moist,  not  too  wet,  nor  too  dry.  The  beds  should  be  raised 
three  or  four  inches  above  the  level  of  the  walks ; and  the 
seeds  ought,  by  all  means,  to  be  sown  in  rows,  ten  or 
twelve  inches  apart ; and  the  earth  should  be  moderately 
pressed  upon  them.  The  time  for  sowing  either  annual, 
biennial,  or  perennial  flower-seeds,  is  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  according  to  the  state  of  the  season.  Very 
small  seeds  may  be  covered  with  fine  earth  nearly  half  an 
inch ; larger  ones  in  proportion  to  their  size ; and  those  as 
large  as  a pea,  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  or  a little  more. 
Seeds  of  delicate  plants  should  be  planted  in  flower-pots, 
and  the  earth  kept  moderately  moist,  by  watering  with  a 
watering-pot,  that  is  finely  pierced,  and  does  not  pour 
heavily ; or  the  pot  may  be  placed  in  the  pan,  and  water 
supplied  at  the  bottom.  The  pots  should  be  exposed  to  the 
sun,  except  from  eleven,  A.  M.,  to  two,  P.  M.,  when  a pow- 
erful sun  might  scorch  the  vegetating  seed.  The  mould 
for  pots  should  be  rich,  and  sifted  through  a coarse  sieve, 
made  for  that  purpose. 

Transplanting. — The  best  time,  perhaps,  for  transplant- 
ing annual  plants  is  in  June,  and  for  biennial  and  perennial 
plants  in  September  or  the  beginning  of  October,  remem- 
bering, in  all  cases,  to  take  a sufficient  quantity  of  earth, 
with  the  roots,  where  it  can  be  done  with  propriety.  Scoop 
trowels  will  be  found  useful  instruments  in  this  operation, 
which  ought  not  to  be  done  when  the  ground  is  very  wet, 
but  when  it  is  only  moderately  moist,  and  in  a cloudy  day, 
or  a little  before  the  evening,  or  previous  to  a shower.  If 
the  ground  be  dry,  shading  the  plants,  and  a little  water, 
may  be  necessary,  for  a short  time.  In  case  the  roots 
should  be  small,  or  injured,  or  destitute  of  earth,  when  ta- 
ken up,  they  must  be  shaded  during  the  day,  until  they 
have  gained  strength.  In  placing  a plant  where  it  is  to 
stand,  great  care  is  necessary  to  place  the  roots  in  their 
natural  position,  to  bring  the  earth  in  contact  with  them, 
and  to  press  the  earth  moderately  about  them. 

If  the  plant  is  to  be  planted  in  a pot,  place  a piece  of 
earthen  ware" over  the  aperture  in  the  bottom,  that  the  su- 
perabundant water  may  drain  off,  which  would  otherwise 
saturate  and  rot  the  roots.  The  pots  should  be  nearly  filled 


FLOWERS. 


ii2 

with  rich  earth,  and  the  plant  carefully  placed  in  the  centre, 
and  the  mould  brought  into  contact  with  iiie  roots,  ana 
moderately  pressed. 

Cultivation, — The  plants  must  be  properly  thinned 
while  they  are  small ; for,  if  left  too  near  each  other,  they 
interfere,  grow  slender  and  weakly.  As  the  plants  increase 
in  size,  remove  the  weakest,  and  so  continue  to  do,  until 
they  stand  at  a proper  distance.  All  plants  of  every  de- 
scription should  stand  at  such  distance  one  from  the  other, 
as  that  the  air  may  circulate  freely  about  them,  and  that 
the  sun  may  have  its  proper  influence  in  bringing  them  to 
perfection.  The  air  and  sun  are  absolutely  necessary  in 
perfecting  the  grow^th  of  plants,  which  never  ought  to  stand 
so  near  as  to  interfere  with  each  other. 

The  earth  ought  to  be  kept  loose  about  the  plants,  and 
for  this  purpose  a prong-hoe  is  a useful  instrument.  Mov- 
ing the  earth  should  be  done  in  dry  weather  ; as  ploughing, 
digging,  or  hoeing  in  wet  weather,  leaves  the  ground  in  a 
Dad,  clammy  state.  In  a dry  season,  stir  the  earth  about 

Slants,  and  spread  old  coarse  hay  or  straw  about  them.  Old 
ay  spread  about  the  plants  keeps  the  earth  cool,  and  re- 
tains the  moisture,  and  is  very  useful  to  vines. 

Weeds  of  every  species  must  be  removed,  and  the  soon- 
er the  better  after  their  appearance.  No  weed  should  be 
Buffered  to  flower  in  a garden,  nor  in  its  border.  The  beauty 
of  a garden  depends  very  much  on  order  and  neatness — a 
place  for  every  thing,  and  every  thing  in  its  place — keeping 
out  the  weeds,  and  removing  every  thing  when  decayed. 
No  garden  can  show  to  advantage,  where  weeds  are  per- 
mitted to  usurp  the  place  of  useful  plants. 

Shrubbery  in  general  requires  some  attention.  Prune  out 
all  inferior,  dead,  and  decaying  branches.  Keep  down  the 
suckers,  and  clean  out  the  weeds,  and  stir  the  earth  about 
the  roots  occasionally.  Order  and  neatness  add  a lustre  to 
every  thing. 

Cuttings  are  pieces,  cut  from  trees,  shrubs,  or  plants  of 
the  last  growth,  and  should  generally  retain  a small  piece 
of  the  growth  immediately  preceding  the  last  or  riponed 
wood.  They  should  be  taken  when  the  sap  is  active,  and 
about  six  joints  or  buds  are  sufficient.  Cut  them  with  a 
sharp  knife,  transversely  and  smoothly,  near  a joint  or  bud 
of  the  previous  growth,  or  between  the  two  last  growths. 
Set  them  in  rich,  moist  ground,  in  a shady  place,  leaving 
two  or  three  joints  or  buds  above  the  surface.  If  the  weath- 
er be  dry,  water  them,  and  place  old  hay  about  them,  to 


FLOWERS. 


iia 

keep  tlie  cnrth  moist.  Such  parts  of  herbaceous  plants 
should  be  taken  for  cuttings,  as  do  not  show  a tendency  to 
flower.  If  the  cutting  be  planted  in  a flower-pot,  place  the 
pot  iii  the  earth,  in  a shady  place,  and  cover  the  cutting 
with  an  inverted  glass,  for  a short  time,  to  preserve  a moist 
iitmosphci  c about  it.  If  they  send  out  roots,  they  will  also 
send  out  branches,  otherwise  they  die. 

Layers  are  branches  left  on  the  parent  plant  or  shrub, 
and  bent  down,  and  lastened  several  inches  (according  to 
the  case)  belovr  the  surface  of  the  earth,  leaving  the  ex- 
treme part  out  of  the  ground.  A tlat  stone,  placed  on  the 
eartii  immediately  above  the  layer,  is  useful  to  keep  the 
earth  cool,  and  to  retain  the  moisture.  When  they  hav« 
taken  sudicient  root,  sever  them  from  the  parent  stock,  and 
at  any  proper  time  they  may  be  transplanted. 

As  to  the  cultivation  of  herbaceous  plants  and  shrubs  in 
pots,  a few  fiirections  may  be  necessary. — The  earth  should 
be  kept  moderately  moist.  The  mould  on  the  top  should 
be  dry  before  additional  water  be  given.  The  pots  should 
be  frequently  turned  round,  or  the  plants  will  grow  crooked 
by  reason  of  their  inclining  towards  the  sun  or  light.  If 
the  plants  are  to  stand  in  pots,  year  after  year,  the  balls  of 
earth  should  be  taken  out  in  October,  and  the  sides  and 
bottom  shaved  olf  with  a sharp  knife,  to  the  depth  of  an 
inch,  more  or  less,  according  to  the  size,  and  then  replaced, 
and  the  pot  tilled  with  some  fresh  compost  or  very  rich  earth 
made  very  tine.  Two  thirds  of  good  rich  earth  and  one 
third  of  old  rotten  yard-manure,  well  incorporated,  make  a 
good  compost  for  most  plants,  except  the  bulbous-rooted, 
which  require  some  sand. 

Protection  during  the  winter, — Herbaceous  plants  in  gene- 
ral require  some  slight  covering  during  the  severity  of  a 
northern  winter.  Pine  boughs,  straw,  old  coarse  hay,  or 
leaves,  are  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  may  be  removed 
about  the  tirst  of  April  or  before,  if  the  weather  will  permit. 

BULBOUS  FLOWER  ROOTS.— No  class  of  plants  is 
more  interesting,  perhaps,  than  this  ; yet  merely  an  outline 
of  the  mode  of  cultivation  must  suffice. 

Situation, — A southern  exposure,  not  too  wet  nor  too  dry, 
sheltered  from  the  north  and  north-west  winds,  is  proper  for 
most  bulbous  roots. 

Soil, — Bulbous  flower  roots  do  best  in  a soil  composed 
of  one  third  sand,  one  third  old  rotten  yard-manure,  and  one 
third  good  rich  earth,  well  pulverized  and  mixed  together; 
and  il  a small  proportion,  say  about  one  fourth,  of  decomposed 
10  * 


114 


FLOWERS. 


TCgetable  mould,  from  a wood  or  swamp,  be  added,  it  will 
have  a good  effect  by  giving  additional  lightness  to  the  soil. 
The  beds  should  be  raised  four  or  five  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  walks,  that  the  superfluous  moisture  may  run 
off.  Some  additional  sand,  strewed  in  the  trenches  made  for 
the  roots,  before  and  after  planting  them,  is  recommended. 

Transplanting. — The  proper  season  for  transplanting  most 
bulbous  roots,  is  in  August,  September,  and  October.  The 
only  advantage  to  be  gained,  by  taking  up  bulbs,  after 
blooming,  (tulips  excepted,)  is  either  to  divide  the  roots, 
when  too  numerous,  or  to  renew  a worn  out  soil,  neither  of 
which  can  occur  oftener  than  once  in  three  or  four  years. 
Tulips  and  hyacinths,  when  taken  up  after  blooming,  and 
after  the  foliage  is  decayed,  may  be  kept  from  the  ground 
till  the  middle  of  October. 

Delicate  and  tender  bulbs,  as  the  Feraria  tigrida,  &c. 
may  be  planted  in  pots  in  November,  or  they  may  be  kept 
in  dry  sand  until  April,  (w  hich  is  best,)  and  then  planted  in 
pots  or  open  ground.  In  either  case  they  must  be  secured 
from  the  frost.  As  to  tulips  and  hyacinths,  in  order  to 
preserve  their  beauty  in  perfection,  the  nicer  varieties  should 
be  taken  up,  air-dried,  and  replanted  annually. 

Depths  and  distances. — Large  bulbs,  as  the  hyacinth  and 
the  large  lilies,  should  be  planted  to  the  depth  of  four  inch- 
es; tulips.  Narcissus,  jonquils,  three  inches;  crocus,  Fe- 
raria tigrida,  gladiolus,  &c.  two  inches,  always  measuring 
from  the  top  of  the  bulb.  The  polyanthus  Narcissus  may 
be  planted  five  or  six  inches  deep.  The  rows  should  be 
ten  or  twelve  inches  asunder,  and  the  roots  placed  from 
three  to  eight  inches  apart,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
plants. 

Protection  during  winter. — Bulbous  roots  should  be  cover- 
ed in  November  with  tanners’  bark,  leaves,  rubbish  of  the 
garden,  or  some  light  substance,  to  the  depth  of  three 
inches,  to  prevent  the  bad  effects  of  severe  frosts.  Polyan- 
thus Narcissus  is  more  tender  than  hyacinths,  and  ought  to 
be  covered  six  or  seven  inches.  The  covering  must  be 
removed  early  in  the  spring. 

Management  of  bulbous  roots  in  pots. — Hyacinths,  polyan- 
thus Narcissus,  double  Narcissus,  and  jonquils,  make  a 
beautiful  appearance,  during  winter,  in  the  parlour. 

Bulbs  intended  for  blooming  in  the  winter,  should  be 
rotted  in  October  or  November,  and  left  out  until  it  begins 
and  then  placed  in  a warm  room.  They  will 
want,  occasionally,  a little  water,  until  they  begin  to  grow  ; 


FLOWERS. 

then  they  should  have  both  air  and  sun,  and  plenty  of  wa- 
ter from  the  saucers  or  pans,  underneath  the  pots. 

Those  bulbs,  as  hyacinths,  &c.  which  are  designed  to 
flower  in  glasses,  should  be  placed  in  them  towards  the 
end  of  November,  the  glasses  being  first  filled  with  rain- 
water, so  that  the  bulbs  may  come  in  contact  with  it. 
Then  place  them  in  a dark  place  for  a few  days,  to  promote 
the  shooting  of  the  roots,  after  which  expose  them  to  the 
light  and  sun,  and  change  the  water  as  often  as  it  becomes 
impure,  not  suffering  it  to  freeze. 

Bulbous-rooted  plants,  growing  in  pots,  should  be  fre- 
quently turned  round,  as  they  will  incline  to  the  sun  or 
light — the  earth  on  the  top  should  be  suffered  to  dry, 
before  the  next  watering — when  the  plants  have  done 
growing,  give  them  little  or  no  water.  If  the  plant  be  so 
managed  the  present  year,  as  not  to  have  a flower-bud 
formed  in  miniature,  there  will  be  no  flower  in  the  next. 
If  the  leaves  be  well  grown,  and  the  plant  properly  ex- 
posed to  the  air  and  sun,  then  the  sap  will  be  duly  prepared 
by  them,  and  an  embryo  flower  will  be  formed  in  the  bulb. 
All  bulbs,  in  a certain  period  of  the  year,  are  dormant ; this 
state  commences  when  the  foliage  begins  to  decay,  after 
blooming — then  lessen  the  supplies  of  water,  and  in  a little 
^ime  cease  to  water  altogether,  until  the  season  of  regermi- 
.ation  returns.  The  bulbs,  during  this  time,  may  be  kept 
ip  ^he  pots  in  a dry,  shady  place,  and  in  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  that  in  which  they  delight  to  grow. 

Generally,  it  is  best  to  take  the  bulbs  out  of  the  pots, 
after  the  decay  of  the  foliage,  and  repot  them  in  a fresh 
soil  or  compost,  (mentioned  above  for  bulbs,)  a week  or 
two  before  the  period  of  regerminating ; at  which  time 
water  will  be  necessary,  and  may  be  applied  at  the  bottom, 
pouring  into  the  pan,  or  it  may  be  applied  by  a small  water- 
ing-pot, that  pours  lightly,  on  the  top,  so  as  to  keep  the 
earth  moderately  moist.  The  earth  should  be  kept  loose 
on  the  top,  and  the  water  used  for  the  plants  ought  to  be 
rain  water,  or  such  as  has  been  exposed  to  the  sun.  Water 
that  has  been  filtered  through  a rich  compost  is  very  useful. 

The  proper  time  to  take  up  bulbous  roots  is  in  about  a 
month  after  blooming,  when  the  foliage  has  a yellowish, 
decayed  appearance.  Cut  off  the  stem  and  foliage  within 
an  inch  of  the  bulb,  leaving  the  fibrous  roots  attached  to  it 
After  they  are  air-dried,  place  them  singly  in  paper  or  dry 
sand,  until  replanted,  or  spread  them  on  shelves  in  a dry 
apartment. 


116 


FLOWERS. 


Flowers  are  divided  into  annuals^  which  flower  and  die 
the  year  they  are  sown  ; biennials^  which  flower  the  second 
year,  and  then  die  ; and  perennials^  which  do  not,  general- 
ly, flower  the  first  year,  but  die  down  to  the  ground  annu- 
ally, and  spring  up  again  every  succeeding  spring  for  a 
number  of  years. 

In  the  following  alphabetical  list,  flowering  trees  and 
shrubs  are  included.  We  shall  select  such  plants,  shrubs, 
and  trees,  as  are  of  easy  cultivation,  generally  hardy — such 
as  have  singular  foliage,  fragrant  odours,  or  beautiful  flowers 
— such  as  make  a handsome  appearance.  As  to  placing 
them  in  the  garden,  or  elsewhere,  to  advantage,  we  leave 
it  to  the  convenience  and  taste  of  the  proprietor. 

Althea  frutex — Hibiscus  Syriacus — is  a beautiful  shrub, 
but  requires  a warm,  sheltered  situation  in  the  Northern 
States.  It  is  easily  raised  from  the  seeds,  sown  in  the 
spring.  The  young  plants  must  be  well  protected  during 
the  winter. 

Almond,  double-flowering— ptmila — is  a 
shrub,  which  is,  generally,  in  the  spring,  loaded  with  beau- 
tiful flowers^  resembling  small  roses.  When  in  bloom,  it  is 
not  inferior  to  any  shrub  whatever,  and  makes  a fine  ap- 
pearance in  a border.  It  is  propagated  by  suckers. 

Amarantiius  superbus — annual — superb — flowers  late 
— tender — ^plant  the  seed  in  May,  or  before,  if  the  season 
be  mild. 

Amarantiius  tricolor. — This  plant  is  annual,  and  is 
admired  for  its  beautiiul  foliage,  red,  green  and  yellow — ten- 
der. The  seed  is  found  in  little  tufts  about  the  stalk,  and 
should  be  sown  in  May,  or  before,  if  the  weather  be  warm. 

Animated  oats — Arena  sensiliva — are  annual,  and  re- 
semble the  common  oats,  while  growing.  The  seeds  are 
clothed  with  a stiff  down,  and  have  appendages  like  the 
legs  of  some  insect,  with  apparent  joints.  They  are  af- 
fected by  the  changes  of  the  weather,  and,  of  course,  are 
continually  moving.  If  they  be  wet,  they  will  turn  over 
several  times,  and  twist  about.  If  wet,  and  held  to  a light- 
ed lamp,  they  exhibit  such  motions  of  apparent  agony,  as 
an  insect  w^ould,  placed  in  a like  situation. 

Aster,  China. — It  is  annual,  and  produces  many  flowers, 
beautiful  to  the  sight.  There  are  many  species,  as  red, 
white,  purple,  striped,  quilled,  &c.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  early  in  the  spring.  It  flo^vers  late  in  the  season, 
and  endures  some  frost,  but  will  not  stand  a severe  one. 

Auricula. — This  is  one  of  the  flowers,  the  species  of 


FLOWERS. 


117 


which  are  disting:uished  by  having  awarded  to  them  the 
names  of  famous  men,  famous  womeriy  famous  cities^  famous 
battles^  &c.  It  may  be  raised  from  seed  ; but  the  flowers  so 
raised  do  not  resemble  those  of  the  parent  plant,  except  by 
mere  accident.  However,  if  a flower  be  produced  different 
from  any  which  has  appeared  before,  there  will  be  a cl  ance 
to  add  to  the  list  of  names.  Auriculas  are  best  propagated 
by  dividing  the  roots,  which  send  out  several  young  plants 
annually.  They  are  tender,  and,  if  planted  in  open  ground, 
they  must  be  well  covered,  and  be  kept  from  severe  frost 
and  rain  during  the  winter.  They  are  well  calculated  for 
pots,  to  flower  in  the  parlour. 

Azalea  nudiflora. — Several  species — commonly  called 
American  honeysuckle.  This  shrub  blows  profusely — very 
fragrant,  and  makes  a fine  appearance  in  a border. 

Box — Buxus  sempervirens — is  a small,  delicate  shrub, 
which  may  be  pruned  to  any  shape,  to  please  the  fancy. 
It  is  an  evergreen,  hardy,  and  is  proper  to  trim  beds.  It 
appears  well  in  a border.  It  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  or 
by  dividing  the  roots.  If  a plant  be  placed  deep  in  the 
earth,  and  the  soil  be  brought  in  close  contact  with  the 
siMall  branches,  (being  spread  as  much  as  possible,)  they 
will  send  out  roots,  and  afford  a great  number  of  small 
plants.  The  small  branches  are  used  by  the  ladies  to  trim 
cake,  &c. 

Brier,  sweet — Rosa  rubiginosa — is  a well  known  bush 
of  the  rose  family — very  hardy — foliage  bright  and  fragrant 
— will  grow  in  poor  ground. 

Canterbury  bell — Campanula  medium — is  a biennial 
plant,  and  is  admired  for  its  profusion  of  large  blue  flowqrs. 

Carnation. — Dianthus  caryophyllns.—Here  is  beauty  and 
fragrance.  It  is  a superb  plant,  and  is  biennial  and  peren- 
nial. There  are  various  kinds,  distinguished  by  names 
like  those  of  the  auricula,  and  what  was  said  of  the  seed 
of  that  plant  applies  to  this.  It  is  best  propagated  by  layers. 
While  it  is  in  flower,  it  sends  out  several  side  shoots  near 
the  root.  These  are  pinned  down  in  August  a little  under 
the  earth,  leaving  the  extreme  part  erect.  In  a little  time 
they  take  root,  and  the  new  plant  must  be  severed  from  the 
old  and  transplanted.  The  old  plant  does  not  always  stand 
another  winter ; therefore,  its  branches  are  thus  used  to 
continue  the  species.  Carnations  are  rather  tender  as  to 
frost,  and  must  be  well  covered,  as  far  north  as  Massachu- 
setts, to  live  through  the  winter.  It  is  best  to  put  them  in 
large  pots,  and  to  keep  them  in  a green-house,  or  parlour, 


118 


i'LOWEllS. 


or  in  some  place  where  they  can  have  air  and  light,  during 
the  winter.  They  merit  all  the  care  that  can  be  bestowed 
upon  them. 

Cassia  Marylandica  is  a perennial  plant,  producing 
many  small  yellow  flowers,  suitable  only  to  stand  in  a bor- 
der. It  is  hardy,  and  is  propagated  by  seed. 

Catalpa — Catalpa  syringcBfolia — is  a beautiful  tree,  much 
admired  for  its  foliage  and  showy  flowers.  It  is  propagated 
by  seed. 

Cherry,  double-flowering. — This  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  trees  in  the  flower-garden  or  shrubbery  ; cultiva- 
tion the  same  as  that  of  the  common  cherry. 

Chrysanthemum  Indicum,— This  is  a superb  perennial 
flower,  much  esteemed;  being  hardy,  and  affording  a bril- 
liant display  of  beauty,  late  in  the  autumn,  when  the  chilling 
blasts  of  the  north-west  and  frosts  have  only  left  us  the 
vestiges  of  departed  verdure.  They  may  stand  in  open 
ground  until  August  or  September,  and  then  be  taken  up 
and  placed  in  pots.  ^Vhen  the  frosts  appear,  keep  them  in 
a sitting  room  until  aber  flowering,  which  is  a long  time, 
and  then  the  roots  may  be  put  in  the  cellar,  or  in  open 
ground.  They  will  flower  in  the  garden,  if  properly  cov- 
ered with  glass.  There  are  many  varieties,  all  of  which 
are  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Clematis,  Austrian — Clematis  integrifolia — is  a peren- 
nial plant,  producing  very  neat  flowers.  Best  propagated 
by  dividing  the  roots. 

Clethra- alnifolia — is  a very  common  shrub, 
which  produces  fragrant  flowers,  in  clusters,  in  the  autumn. 

Columbine. — Aqwilegia. — Perennial — very  common  — 
very  neat — many  species. 

Convolvulus. — Many  species  — annual.  — Convolvulus 
major  is  commonly  called  morning  glory.  It  is  a vine,  and 
a great  runner — many  colours.  Convolvulus  minor,  called 
beauty  of  the  nighty  because  it  blossoms  at  evening — many 
colours.  They  are  much  admired.  The  seed  must  be  sown 
early  in  the  spring. 

CoRCHORus  Jafonicus. — Tliis  shrub,  although  cultivated 
as  a green-house  plant,  will  thrive  in  a warm,  sheltered  place 
in  a garden.  It  produces  numerous  flowers  of  a golden 
yellow,  in  wreaths,  much  admired. 

Crocus. — A bulbous-rooted  plant — hardy — very  early — 
various  colours ; as  blue,  white,  purple,  yellow,  &c.  Ap- 
pears to  advantage  in  small  pots.  Propagated  by  the  bulbs. 

Cupid’s  car,  or  Monk’s  hood — Aconitiim  napellas — is  a 


FLOWERS»> 


119 


beautiful,  hardy  perennial.  It  produces  many  neat,  blue 
flowers,  both  in  summer  and  autumn.  It  is  propagated  by 
dividing  the  roots. 

Dahlia. — This  is  a beautiful  autumnal  flowering  plant, 
a native  of  Mexico.  There  are  many  varieties,  single  and 
double,  and  of  almost  every  colour  and  shade.  Dahlias 
will  grow  in  almost  any  soil,  but  a poor,  sandy,  or  gravelly 
soil  is  thought  best,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  them  from 
growing  too  luxuriant,  which  would  be  the  case  if  planted 
in  a rich  soil.  In  a poor  soil  they  produce  a greater  abun- 
dance of  flowers.  They  are  propagated  by  seed  and  by 
div  iding  the  roots. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  in  March,  in  pots,  and  placed  in 
a hot-bed,  or  green-house.  About  the  middle  of  May,  or 
when  there  is  no  danger  from  frost,  plant  them  out  in  the 
borders,  or  wherever  they  are  to  stand,  and,  as  they  advance 
in  height,  let  them  be  well  supported  by  stakes,  otherwise 
the  wind  will  break  them  down. 

The  roots  are  tuberous,  resembling  a sweet  potato,  and 
should  be  taken  up  in  October  or  November,  and  preserved 
through  the  winter  in  a box  filled  with  dry  sand,  placed 
where  the  frost  never  penetrates.  Towards  the  end  of 
April,  or  when  they  begin  to  sprout,  divide  the  roots,  and 
plant  them  where  they  are  to  stand,  taking  care  to  cover 
them  in  case  of  frost.  Plant  only  those  that  have  a bud, 
and  be  careful  that  it  is  not  hurt  by  dividing  the  roots.  The 
plants  soon  shoot  up  to  considerable  height,  and  produce 
a great  abundance  of  flowers.  The  plants  must  be  well 
supported  by  slender  stakes.  They  are  said  to  do  well  if 
planted  in  large  pots. 

Daisy — Beilis — is  a small,  delicate,  perennial  plant,  and 
produces  beautiful  little  flowers.  It  is  hardy,  and  well 
calculated  for  pots,  placed  in  the  sitting  room  ; in  which 
case  they  will  flower  in  the  winter.  It  is  propagated  by 
offsets. 

Dwarf  Basil — Ocymum  minimum — is  a sweet,  fragrant, 
annual  plant,  easily  raised  by  seed.  But  few  plants 
exceed  this  in  fragrance. 

Egg  plant. — This  is  a singular,  annual  plant.  The 
white  ( Solanum  melongena ) is  the  most  unique,  producing  a 
fruit  resembling  a large  white  egg.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  early,  in  a hot-bed,  and  after  the  frosts  have  gone 
past,  transplant  them  where  it  is  desired  they  should 
stand. 

Eupatorium,  nnuE — Eupatorium  coelestinum — is  a peren- 


120 


t'LOWERS. 


nial  plant,  producing  many  beautiful  flowers,  much  admired. 
Propagated  best  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Euphorbia  lathyris — is  a biennial  plant,  commonly 
called  the  caper-tree.  It  is  singular  in  its  foliage,  and 
bears  a small  fruit  useful  for  pickling.  It  is  rather  tender, 
but  will  stand  the  winter  very  well  in  a common  hot-bed. 
It  is  raised  from  seed. 

Fading  beauty,  or  morning  bride — Scabiosa  atropwr-- 
purea — is  an  annual  plant,  producing  beautiful  flowers  ; but 
they  soon  fade,  continuing  only  an  hour  or  two.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  early  in  the  spring. 

Fir — Pinus  halsamea — is  not  a flowering  tree,  but  it  is  a 
beautiful  evergreen,  and  very  ornamental. 

Foxglove — Digitalis — is  a biennial  and  perennial  plant, 
and  produces  very  handsome  flowers.  There  are  several 
species,  but  the  purple  is  the  most  beautiful.  The  seed  is 
very  small,  and  ought  to  be  sown  early  in  the  spring,  and 
very  lightly  covered  with  earth.  The  plant  possesses  high 
medicinal  virtues. 

Fringe-tree — Chionanthes — a beautiful  American  shrub, 
covered  with  white  flowers  in  its  season.  It  is  hardy,  and 
will  grow  in  any  soil,  but  flourishes  best  in  moist  ground. 

Geranium. — Pelargonium, — This  plant  wants  hardiness 
only  to  make  it  one  of  the  finest  and  most  value^ble  produc- 
tions in  the  floral  kingdom.  There  are  many  varieties. 
Some  give  us  flower  with  little  or  no  leaf;  others  possess 
beauty  of  leaf,  as  well  as  of  flower ; some  give  us  no  fra- 
grance ; but  others  give  us  the  most  delightful  odours,  and 
in  great  profusion.  The  geranium  is  a native  of  the  south 
of  Africa,  and  will  not  endure  the  frost.  It  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  from  any  part  of  the  plant,  old  wood  or 
young,  and  placed  in  a pot.  In  a green-house,  they  will 
bloom  throughout  a northern  winter.  They  are,  properly, 
green-house  plants.  There  is  one,  however,  which  is  as 
hardy  as  an  oak  tree,  geranium  maculatum^  producing  a blue 
flower.  It  is  possessed  of  great  medicinal  powers. 

Garden  Angelica — Angelica  archangelica — has  a bold 
appearance  when  in  flower.  It  is  suitable  for  a border,  and 
very  showy.  It  is  propagated  by  seed.  It  is  a perennial 

Glycine,  cluster-flowering — Glycine  frutescens — is  a 
perennial  vine,  and  will  extend  on  the  side  of  a house  or 
wall  to  great  length.  It  is  much  admired.  The  flowers 
are  variegated.  Propagated  by  seed  and  from  layers. 

Golden  coreopsis. — Coreopsis  elegans,- — This  is  an  an- 
nual plant,  and  produces  a profusion  of  splendid  flowers  of 


FLOWERS.  121 

ft  brilliant  yellow,  with  rich  purple  centre.  It  is  easily 
raised  from  the  seed. 

Goldkn  everlasting — Xeranthemum  lucidum — is  a very 
singular  plant,  and  produces  bright  yellow  flowers,  which, 
if  plucked  before  the  seed  ripens,  will  hold  their  brightness 
for  years.  It  is  much  admired.  The  seed  should  be 
planted  early,  as  the  plant  will  flower  late  in  the  season. 

Hollyhock. — Althcea. — This  is  a showy  plant  for  a 
shrubbery.  It  is  hardy  and  perennial.  There  are  various 
kinds ; single  and  double,  white,  red,  yellow,  black,  and 
variegated. 

Honeysuckle. — This  plant  i^  very  beautiful  in  its  place; 
it  climbs  up  houses,  and  over  hedges : it  forms  arbours  and 
bowers  : it  blooms  in  clusters.  Three  varieties  we  shall 
name.  The  Italian  (Lonicera  Italica)  produces  an  abun- 
dance of  flowers  early  in  the  season,  diffusing  a rich 
fragrance  all  around.  The  flowers  are  changeable.  The 
variegated  {Lonicera  caprifolium)  blooms  monthly,  and  has 
a delightful  fragrance.  The  scarlet  trumpet  {Caprifolimn 
sempervirens)  blooms  monthly, — scarlet  flowers, — and  makes 
a beautiful  appearance.  They  may  be  propagated  by  seed 
or  cuttings,  but  best  by  layers. 

Hyacinth. — Hyacinthus  orientalis. — This  is  a bulbous- 
rooted  plant,  and,  like  all  other  plants  of  this  class,  is  peren- 
nial. It  is  a beautiful  and  fragrant  flower ; it  blooms  early. 
It  will  bloom  in  glasses  filled  with  water  in  a room,  but 
better  in  pots  of  earth.  It  is  best  propagated  by  offsets. 
While  the  parent  root  is  blowing,  it  sends  out  several  young 
ones.  They  should  be  planted  at  the  depth  of  four  inches. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  this  favourite  flower,  both  sin- 
gle and  double ; the  former  have  the  most  vivid  colours, 
but  the  latter  are  generally  preferred.  Such  was  the  rage 
in  Holland  for  this  superb  flower,  that,  in  the  year  1771, 
four  thousand  dollars  were  refused  for  a single  bulb. 

Hydrangea — Hydrangea  hortensis — is  a small  shrub,  and 
produces  very  large  flowers,  which  are  changeable.  The 
flowers  are  at  first  green — ^change  gradually  to  rose-colour — 
then  to  green — occupying  the  space  of  about  six  months.  It 
is  a house-plant ; will  bear  some  frost ; but  must  be  kept 
during  the  winter  in  a green-house,  sitting-room,  or  cellar, 
into  which  some  light  is  admitted.  This  ornamental  shrub 
is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings. 

IcE-PLANT — Mesembryantheum  crystatlinum — is  an  annual 
plant,  and  has  an  icy  appearance.  It  is  singular.  The 
seed  should  be  planted  in  pots  early  in  the  spring. 


22 


FLOWERS. 


Impatiens  balsamina. — A very  fine  annual  plant,  with 
great  abundance  of  showy  flowers.  There  are  several  va- 
rieties, both  single  and  double,  rose-coloured,  red,  purple, 
pure  white,  variegated  and  crimson.  The  flowers  are  ele- 
gantly formed,  and  the  colours  of  many  are  very  vivid.  The 
plant  is  commonly  called  halsamme.  It  wdll  bloom  in  July, 
and  continue  in  flower  until  the  frost  appears.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  May. 

Iris,  or  fleur  de  luce. — This  is  a perennial  plant,  per- 
fectly hardy.  There  are  many  varieties,  both  large  and 
small.  From  its  great  combination  of  colours,  and  unique 
appearance,  it  has  ever  h^d  admirers.  It  shows  to  advan- 
tage in  a border.  It  is  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Lagentrcenia  Indica. — A flowering  shrub,  which  en- 
dures the  wdnter  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  In 
Massachusetts,  it  must  be  treated  like  the  hydrangea,  but 
its  beauty  will  repay  this  attention. 

Laurel,  broad-leaved — Kalmia  latifoUa — is  an  ever- 
green shrub,  which  produces  flowers  of  great  delicacy  and 
beauty,  being  white,  tinged  wdth  red.  This  ornamental 
shrub  is  occasionally  found  in  rocky  wmodlands. 

Laburnum — Cytisus  laburnum — is  a tall  and  handsome 
shrub,  loaded,  when  in  bloom,  with  yellow  flowers.  It  is 
sometimes  called  golden  chain.  It  is  tender,  and  to  stand  a 
Massachusetts  winter  must  be  planted  in  a warm  and  shel- 
tered situation.  It  is  raised  from  the  seed. 

Delphinium — is  an  annual  plant  of  ho  fra- 
grance, but  of  great  variety  of  colours.  It  makes  a good 
appearance,  and  is  easily  propagated  from  the  seed. 

Lilac. — Syringa  vulgaris, — This  is  a large  shrub,  very 
hardy,  and  much  admired  when  in  bloom.  It  has  large 
bunches  of  flowers,  which  possess  considerable  fragrance. 
The  white  and  the  purple  may  be  easily  grafted,  or  innocu- 
iMed  into  each  other,  and  when  the  shrub,  with  a handsome 
head,  is  thus  managed,  some  branches  producing  purple, 
and  others  white  flowers,  it  makes  a beautiful  appearance. 
It  is  propagated  from  suckers,  of  which  it  sends  out  too  many, 
and  from  which  it  should  be  kept  as  clear  as  possible.  The 
Persian  lilac  {Syringa  Persica)  is  a neat  shrub,  loaded, 
when  in  bloom,  with  very  delicate  flowers.  It  is  propa- 
gated by  suckers. 

Lily. — Lilium. — Of  this  plant  there  is  a great  variety  ; 
but  only  a few  shall  be  named. — The  white  {Lilium  candi'- 
dum)  grows  to  the  height  *of  three  or  four  feet,  and  produces 
very  large,  v/hite,  fragrant  flowmrs.  The  Tiger  {Lilitm 


FLOWERS, 


123 


ti.(jrimim)  grows  to  the  height  of  from  four  to  six  feet,  and 
produces  many  spotted  flowers  of  a bold  appearance.  The 
Martagon  is  much  like  the  latter,  except  the  plant  and 
flowers  are  more  delicate.  All  these  are  bulbous-rooted, 
and  are  best  propagated  from  offsets.  The  asphodel  (Lili- 
uni  luteum)  grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet,  and  produces 
beautiful  yellow  flowers.  It  is  propagated  by  seed  or  off- 
sets. All  the  above-named  lilies  are  well  calculated  to 
beautify  a border.  The  lily  of  the  valley  (Convallaria 
majalis)  is  a small  dwarf  plant,  that  thrives  best  in  the 
shade,  where  it  produces  little  delicate  flowers  of  exquisite 
fragrance.  Propagated  by  offsets. 

Lime-plant. — This  plant  [Podophyllum peltat am)  is  a sin- 
gular production  of  nature.  The  stem,  foliage,  flower,  and 
fruit,  are  formed  in  the  earth  ; and,  after  the  plant  has  come 
up,  there  is  nothing  more  than  the  extension  of  parts.  The 
stems,  at  the  height  of  from  eight  to  twelve  inches,  branch 
out  in  two  arms  ; at  the  extremity  of  each  is  a large  palmat- 
ed  leaf.  In  the  fork  proceeds  the  fruit  stem.  The  first  that 
is  seen  in  the  spring  is  a delicate  membraneous  cap,  which 
is  soon  burst  open  by  the  flower-bud,  which  is  large,  white, 
and  round.  The  shoulders  and  arms,  lying  close  to  the 
stem  or  trunk,  soon  appear,  and,  as  the  plant  rises,  the  fruit 
stem  elongates,  and  the  arms  elevate  themselves.  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a large  lime,  green  while  growing, 
and  yellow  when  ripe  ; has  the  flavour  of  a pine-apple  ; 
and,  as  to  eating,  is  but  little  inferioi  to  that  fruit.  The 
plant  requires  a moist  soil  in  a shady  situation — may  be 
propagated  by  seed,  but  best  by  dividing  the  roots,  which 
are  creeping  and  jointed.  The  root  is  medicinal. 

Lyciinadia — Phlox — is  a perennial — several  varieties ; as 
purple,  white,  striped,  &c.  The  plant  is  hardy,  and  pro- 
duces many  delicate  flowers,  and  is  long  in  bloom.  It  is 
best  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Mezereon — Daphne  mezereum — is  a small,  beautiful 
shrub,  blooming  in  the  month  of  March,  loaded  with  flow- 
ers of  delightful  fragrance.  It  is  hardy  as  a shrub  oak,  and 
is  propagated  from  the  seed.  It  produces  a red  fruit,  which 
is  poisonous. 

Mountain  ash — Sorhus  aucuparia — is  a very  ornamental 
tree,  admired  for  the  beauty  of  its  foliage,  and  its  clusters 
of  scarlet  fruit,  which  remain  on  it  for  months.  It  is  prop- 
agated from  the  seed. 

Musk  geranium — Geranium  moschatum — is  an  annual 
plant,  and  is  admired  only  for  its  strong  flavour  of  musk. 


m 


FLOWERS. 


The  plant  will  stand  the  winter  in  a common  hot-bed,  and 
in  this  case  may  be  considered  biennial.  The  seed  must 
be  planted  early. 

Myrtle,  evergreen — Vinca  minor — is  an  evergreen 
vine,  producing  blue  flowers.  There  are  several  species, 
and  all  neat  and  pretty  in  their  place. 

Narcissus— a bulbous-rooted  plant,  managed  precisely 
like  the  hyacinth.  It  blooms  early,  is  very  beautiful,  and 
is  fragrant.  This  plant  is  hardy,  and  well  calculated  to 
bloom  in  a pot,  in  the  green-house,  or  in  a parlour.  It  is 
propagated  by  bulbous  offsets,  which  increase  every  year. 
Polyanthos  Narcissus  and  jonquils,  both  elegant  flowering 
plants,  are  propagated  and  cultivated,  in  all  respects,  in  the 
same  manner. 

Nasturtium — an  annual  plant,  with  showy  flowers. 
The  seeds  are  enveloped  in  fleshy  pods,  which,  before  they 
become  ripe,  are  excellent  for  pickling.  The  seed  should 
be  sown  very  early  in  the  spring.  The  plants  should  be 
supported  from  the  ground  by  bushy  sticks. 

Passion-flower — Passijlora — is  a perennial  vine,  which 
produces  a very  beautiful  flower.  The  name  originated 
from  the  large  cross  in  the  middle  of  the  flower,  surrounded 
by  appendages  resembling  a glory.  The  plant  is  also  beau- 
tiful ; and,  like  the  honeysuckle,  has  a succession  of  flowers 
for  a long  time.  It  is  tender,  and  suitable  for  the  green- 
house. It  will  not  endure  a northern  winter  in  open 
ground.  It  is  best  raised  from  cuttings. 

PvEONY — Pceonia — is  a perennial,  that  has  a very  grand 
flower,  but  of  short  duration.  There  are  several  species 
much  admired.  Propagated  from  offsets. 

Pea,  sweet. — Lathyrus  odoratus. — There  are  many  spe 
cies  as  to  colour  and  fragrance.  These  are  annual.  The 
everlasting  pea  {Lathyrus  latifolius)  is  perennial,  and  pro- 
duces many  clusters  of  showy  flowers,  and  remains  in 
bloom  a long  time.  The  seed  should  be  planted  early 
in  the  spring. 

Peach,  double-flowering. — This  is  a very  showy  tree  ; 
its  flowers  are  as  double  and  as  large  as  the  smaller  sorts 
of  roses — hardy,  and  treated  like  other  peach-trees. 

Pink — Dianthus — is  a perennial  plant,  too  well  known 
to  be  described  here.  There  are  many  kinds,  as  to  size 
and  colour,  but  all  are  fragrant.  They  are  desirable  articles 
for  a flower-garden,  and  are  easily  propagated  by  seed,  by 
layers,  and  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Perennial  sunflower,  double — Helianthm  rmdiijhrui 


FLOWERS.  125 

— is  a fine  plant  to  beautify  a border — propagated  by  seed, 
or  ])y  dividing  the  roots. 

PoLVANTHos. — This  pcreniiial  plant  {Primula  polyan* 
iJio.i)  is  hardy,  has  many  showy  dowers,  and  is  much  es- 
teemed. There  are  many  varieties.  The  plant  blooms 
best  in  a sh.uly  situation.  It  is  best  propagated  by  dividing 
tiie  roots.  Polyantlios  Narcissus  is  a very  pretty  perennial, 
well  calculated  to  bloom  in  a parlour.  It  is  bulbous-rooted, 
and  easily  propagated  by  olTsets. 

Pyuetiirum  Partuenium,  commonly  called  double  fe- 
verfew, is  a hardy  perennial,  and  produces  an  abundance 
of  white  dowers,  and  continues  in  bloom  a long  time.  It 
is  easily  propagated  by  the  seed. 

Poppy — Papaver — is  an  annual  plant,  admired  for  its 
great  variety  in  size  and  in  flower.  The  double  are  very 
showy,  but,  like  beauty,  soon  fade.  It  is  a medicinal 
plant,  and  easily  cultivated. 

Purple  hyacinth  bean — Dolichos — is  an  annual  run- 
ner, producing  large  clusters  of  purple  flowers,  much  ad- 
mired. The  seed  should  be  planted  early,  and  the  plants 
defended  from  the  frost. 

P*,osE. — Rosa. — This  favourite  flower  is  wmrthy  of  all 
the  care  and  attention  that  can  be  paid  to  it.  There  are 
many  varieties,  as  to  size,  singularity,  foliage,  beauty,  and 
fragrance.  Some  Catalogues  enumerate  more  than  five 
hundred  varieties.  Messrs.  G.  Thorburn  & Son  have  a 
splendid  collection  in  their  green-house,  Liberty  Street, 
New  York.  No  class  of  plants  yields  more  intrinsic  de- 
lights than  this.  It  is  unrivalled.  To  describe  the  beauties 
and  excellence  of  the  various  species  would  flli  a volume. 

They  may  be  propagated  from  seed,  but,  as  the  seed  sel- 
dom comes  up  till  the  second  year,  the  usual  mode  of 
propagation  Is  by  suckers,  whicli  come  out  near  the  old 
stems,  duriug  the  summer.  The  suckers,  when  planted 
out,  should  be  cut  down  to  four  or  five  inches  of  the  ground. 
The  time  for  planting  is  either  in  the  months  of  October 
and  November,  or  in  April.  As  to  the  management,  the 
ground  should  be  kept  good,  and  dug  every  autumn.  They 
should,  except  when  trained  against  a wall,  be  kept  cut 
down  to  a certain  height,  according  to  their  natural  size ; 
for  \vhen  they  get  long  stems  and  limbs,  they  produce  few- 
er flowers.  All  the  weak,  dead  or  dying  wood  should  be 
pruned  out  close,  without  leaving  aTiy  ugly  stubs.  The 
yellow^  rose  requires  an  airv  situation  and  a gravelly  soil, 
11* 


126 


and  that,  every  autumn,  one  half  of  the  old  wood  should 
be  cut  down  within  four  inches  of  the  ground;  by  this 
means  a succession  of  thrifty,  blooming  shoots  will  be 
kept  up. 

The  Chinese  monthly  roses  are  propagated  by  cuttings, 
taken  in  the  spring,  and  properly  placed  in  moist  earth. 
These  are  generally  tender,  and  require  to  be  taken  into  a 
green-house  or  parlour  during  the  winter.  There  are  some, 
however,  that  are  very  hardy,  and  bid  defiance  to  the  frost 
The  writer  of  this  article  has  a Chinese  pale-red,  monthly 
rose,  which  has  stood  out  for  several  years,  being  only  cov- 
ered with  a box,  during  the  severity  of  the  winter.  It  is 
now  February  28,  1828,  and  the  foliage  is  yet  bright,  al- 
though it  has  been  frozen  many  times,  during  the  present 
winter.  The  thermometer,  however,  has  not  been  lower, 
the  present  season,  than  one  degree  above  zero.” 

Rose  acacia — Rohinia  hispida — is  a singular  shrub,  pro- 
ducing many  clusters  of  flowers,  much  admired.  Propa- 
gated by  shoots  from  the  roots. 

Rose-coloured  hibiscus — Hibiscus  palustris — is  a per- 
ennial plant,  producing  very  showy  flowers — makes  a good 
appearance  in  a border.  Easily  propagated  from  the  seed. 

Rudbeckia — a perennial  plant,  producing  many  flowers, 
which  are  very  durable  and  much  admired.  Propagated 
best  by  dividing  the  roots. 

Scarlet  cacalia — Cacalia  coccinea — ^is  a small  annual 
plant,  which  produces  numerous  scarlet  flowers,  very  showy. 
Easily  raised  from  the  seed. 

Scarlet  lychnis — Lychnis  chalcedonica — is  a perennial 
plant.  There  are  two  varieties,  the  single  and  the  double. 
The  single  is  pretty,  but  the  double  is  splendid.  The  for- 
mer is  propagated  from  seed,  and  the  latter  by  dividing  the 
roots. 

Siberian  crab. — This  is  a small  tree,  esteemed  for  its 
large,  fragrant  flowers,  and  for  its  small  fruit.  The  Pyrus 
prunifolia  produces  a beautiful  longish  fruit.  The  Pyrus  hac- 
cata^  or  cherry  crab,  bears  a beautiful  round  fruit.  The 
Pyrus  spectabilisj  or  Chinese  double  blossom,  has  the  most 
beautiful  flowers  of  the  family.  They  are  all  delicate  in 
form  and  flower. 

Snow-ball  tree — Virburnum  opulus — is  a beautiful 
shrub,  especially  when  in  bloom.  It  is  propagated  by 
suckers. 

Snowberry — Symphoria  racemosa — is  a small  shmb, 


FLOWERS.  127 

which  produces  clusters  of  w^hite  fruit  in  autumn,  and  is 
oniamcutal.  Propagated  best  by  suckers. 

Si»icE-wooD — Laurus  benzoin — is  a very  fragrant  shrub, 
of  medicinal  virtues.  It  grows  best  in  the  shade,  and 
sometimes  bears  a long,  green,  spicy  fruit.  It  is  propagated 
by  suckers. 

SiUDEftwoRT — Tradescantia — is  a singular  perennial  plant, 
wliicii  is  in  bloom  for  a long  time.  The  blue  is  more  ad- 
mired than  the  white.  It  requires  a light  covering  during 
the  severity  of  winter ; and  is  propagated  by  dividing  the 
roots. 

Spiraea. — This  is  a small  shrub,  loaded  with  delicate 
flowers  in  the  season  of  its  blooming.  Propagated  by 
suckers. 

Syringa,  or  Mock  orange. — A shrub,  which  has  flowers 
much  like  those  of  the  orange.  It  makes  a pretty  appear- 
ance wdth  other  shrubbery.  Propagated  by  suckers. 

Strawberry  tree — Euonymus — is  a very  handsome 
shrub,  producing,  in  autumn,  an  abundance  of  fruit,  some- 
what resembling  the  strawberry.  The  European  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  American.  It  has  been  called  the  burning 
bush^  from  its  appearance  when  loaded  with  ripe  fruit.  It 
is  propagated  by  seed  and  by  suckers. 

Sweet  bay — Laurus  nobilis — is  a very  pretty  evergreen 
shrub,  well  calculated  to  stand  (in  a large  pot)  in  the  par- 
lour during  winter.  Propagated  by  suckers. 

Sweet  William,  or  Poetic  pink — Dianthus  barbatus — is 
an  imperfect  perennial,  producing  very  handsome  flowers  of 
small  size.  It  is  propagated  by  seed,  the  plants  of  which 
do  not  produce  flowers  like  those  of  the  parent  plant,  ex- 
cept by  chance.  It  may  be  propagated  by  dividing  the 
roots. 

Tulip. — Talipa, — In  no  family  of  plants  has  Nature  so 
varied  her  delicate  tints  as  in  this.  There  are  more  than 
six  hundred  varieties  of  this  splendid  flower  cultivated  in 
the  Linnaean  Garden  on  Long  Island.  During  the  tulip 
fever,  which  raged  in  Holland,  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  some  splendid  varieties  were  sold  for 
enormous  sums  of  money ; one  of  which,  called  the  vice- 
roi^  brought  ten  thousand  dollars. 

The  tulip  may  be  raised  from  seed  ; but  it  is,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  auricula,  mere  chance  if  one  be  obtained,  that 
will  produce  flowers  like  those  of  the  parent  plant.  They 
are  best  propagated  by  the  bulbs. 

There  is  something  respecting  thi«  plant  astonishing. 


128 


FRUITS. 


After  flowering,  the  foliage  and  roots  decay,  and  a bulb  or 
bulbs  are  formed  of  the  juices  of  the  old  plant.  A bulb 
contains  all  the  parts  of  the  future  plant,  and  soon  becomes 
as  much  disengaged  from  the  decayed  parent  plant,  as  the 
ripe  acorn  is  disengaged  from  its  parent  tree.  At  this  time, 
they  may  be  carried  (like  many  other  bulbs)  any  length 
of  distance  in  dry  moss  or  dry  sand.  They  should  he  plant- 
ed out,  about  three  inches  below  the  surface,  in  a rich  soil, 
in  August  or  September ; after  Vv^hich  they  throw  out  roots, 
and  prepare  for  an  early  appearance  in  the  ensuing  spring. 
If  the  bulbs  be  kept  through  the  winter,  and  planted  in  the 
spring,  they  do  not  thrive  that  season.  The  nice  varieties 
should  be  taken  up  after  the  decay  of  the  old  plants,  every 
year,  air-dried,  and  kept  until  September  or  October,  and 
then  planted. 

Venitian  sumach,  or  Fringe  tree — Rhus  colinus — is  a 
very  singular  and  beautiful  tree,  which  is  loaded  ‘‘  during 
summer  with  tufts  of  russet-coloured  down,  and  forms  the 
most  singular  ornament  of  the  garden.”  It  has  been  called 
the  smoke  tree.  Propagated  by  layers  and  by  suckers. 

Violet,  blue,  fragrant. — This  little  plant  ( Viola  odo- 
rata)  is  perennial ; the  flowers  blue,  double  and  fragrant. 
It  blooms  early  in  the  season,  and  continues  in  flower  for 
some  time.  It  is  of  considerable  use  in  chymical  inqui- 
ries, to  detect  an  acid  or  an  alkali ; the  former  changing 
the  blue  colour  to  a red,  and  the  latter  to  a green.”  it  is 
best  propagated  by  dividing  the  roots,  wdiich  spread  very 
much. 

FRUITS. — The  following  was  WTitten  for  this  work,  at 
the  request  of  the  compiler,  by  a distinguished  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society  : — 

Under  the  titles  of  each  species  of  fruits,  w^e  have 
treated  of  their,  culture,  and  general  character : this  article 
will  be  devoted,  exclusively,  to  the  selection  of  the  most 
approved  sorts  of  each  species  of  fruits.  Nothing  can  be 
more  annoying,  nothing  more  embarrassing  to  those,  w ho 
are  desirous  of  making  valuable  collections  of  fruit-trees, 
without  any  previous  personal  experience,  than  the  inter- 
minable lists,  and  the  indiscriminate  praise  bestov/ed  by 
nursery  men.  We  blame  them  not — it  is  their  business 
and  their  profit — the  greater  the  variety  of  new  names, 
the  greater  the  sale.  Yet  it  is  true,  that  of  the  150  varie- 
ties of  apples,  and  the  equally  great  number  of  pears — of 
the  vast  collections  of  peaches  and  cherries,  there  are 
but  a few  wdiich  are  of  superior  quality,  and  these  few^ 


FRUITS. 


129 


Hidiciouslv  selected,  will  amply  suffice  for  all  the  wants  of 
private  families.  For  the  market-gardener  in  the  vicinity 
of  great  cities,  a more  ample  list  may  be  of  great  use  and 
profit.  So,  also,  the  amateur  of  great  fortune  may  be  desi- 
rous, as  a matter  of  curiosity,  of  having  in  his  possession 
every  known  variety.  Yet  he  will  acknowledge,  after  all, 
that,  if  he  cannot  sell  them,  seven  eighths  of  the  whole 
number  will  perish,  because  better  fruits  are  in  eating  at 
the  same  time.  How  few  apples  and  pears  can  be  dispos- 
ed of  by  a private  family  during  the  period  when  the 
peaches  are  in  perfection ! The  famous  Duhamel,  the 
greatest  cultivator  and  writer  on  fruit-trees  in  any  country 
or  age,  after  devoting  two  quarto  volumes  in  describing  all 
the  fruits  of  France  known  in  his  day,  terminates  by  giving 
a list  of  forty  or  fifty  sorts  which  would  suffice  for  the  lux- 
ury of  any  private  man.  It  is  our  purpose  to  make  a 
selection,  we  will  not  say  of  the  hest^ — for  as  the  tastes  of 
men  differ,  it  would  be  arrogant  to  say  this, — ^but  of  what 
we  esteem  the  best,  and  which  are  most  generally  esteem- 
ed, adding  something  of  the  qualities  of  each.  We  shall 
introduce  them  in  the  order  of  ripening. 

Apples. — Juneting  or  Jenneting, — This  is  the  earliest  ap- 
ple of  our  country,  and  is  very  pleasant  and  valuable  for 
its  quality  of  early  ripening.  It  is  fit  for  apple-sauce  on 
the  20th  of  June,  and  for  eating  early  in  July. 

Early  summer  pearmain. — This  is  said  to  be  one  of  the 
finest  summer  apples  ; is  of  a reddish  colour,  fit  for  the  table 
and  for  cooking ; it  has  the  desirable  quality  of  flourishing 
in  light  and  sandy  soils ; ripens  the  first  of  August. 

The  codling, — This  is  a favourite  apple  in  England  for 
pies  and  stewing ; is  fit  for  this  use  in  August,  and  lasts  till 
October. 

Siberian  crab, — This  apple  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty. 
It  makes  a beautiful  preserve,  to  be  used  in  winter.  One 
small  tree  will  suffice  for  a family.  It  is  ripe  in  August, 
and  should  be  preserved  before  it  becomes  mealy. 

Monstrous  pippin, — This  is  an  enormous  apple,  of  tran- 
sient duration,  but  of  good  flavour.  One  tree  would  suffice. 
It  is  a small  bearer,  but  as  a cooking  apple  it  is  valuable ; 
ripens  in  October. 

Pomme  d^apij  or  lady  apple, — This  is  a beautiful  little 
apple ; a constant  bearer ; an  ornament  to  the  dessert,  from 
November  to  April.  It  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  its 
principal  value  is  its  ornament  to  the  table.  One  tree 
will  suffice^ 


130 


I'llUITS. 


Doctor  apple. — It  is  a large  and  handsome  fruit,  high- 
ly esteemed ; ripens  in  October,  and  keeps  for  some 
months. 

Bell-flower. — This  apple  we  can  decidedly  recommend, 
from  twenty  years’  trial.  It  is  a great  bearer — beautiful 
bright  yellow  : it  is  fit  for  cooking  and  for  the  table ; ripens 
in  November,  and  will  keep  till  March.  Its  skin  is  so 
tender,  that  it  must  be  gathered  with  great  care,  and  put 
up  with  equal  tenderness.  It  is  the  most  popular  apple  in 
Philadelphia,  and  would  be  so  here,  if  its  merits,  and  its 
careful  management  in  putting  it  up,  were  generally  known. 
It  is  a vigorous  and  healthy  tree. 

Rihstone  pippin. — This  is  a celebrated  English  apple,  of 
fine  flavour,  and  some  beauty.  It  will  keep  from  November 
to  February.  It  has  the  pippin  texture,  is  rather  a shy 
bearer,  and  ought  not  to  be  cultivated  extensively : but  one 
or  two  trees  would  reward  the  cultivator. 

The  two  Spitzenbergs — the  Newton  and  Esopus. — These 
are  American  fruits,  of  the  very  finest  quality,  keeping 
sound,  and  retaining  their  flavour  till  May,  from  December. 
They  bear  every  year^  though,  like  all  others  of  this  class, 
they  have  their  full  and  their  scanty  years  of  bearing.  It 
is  however  admitted,  that  they  are  declining,  not  in  good- 
ness, but  in  fertility.  On  new  lands  they  may  do  well  for 
fifty  years  more. 

The  Baldwin  apple^  formerly  called  the  Pecker  apple. — 
This  is  probably  a Massachusetts  production,  originating  in 
the  county  of  Middlesex.  It  is  now  in  its  prime ; a 
healthy  tree;  an  enormous  bearer;  bearing  every  other 
year,  and  in  the  intermediate  one  not  producing  an  apple  ; 
for  beauty,  richness,  and  other  fine  qualities,  not  yielding 
to  any  apple  in  the  world,  except  the  American  apple  called 
the  Newtown  pippin.  It  is  in  eating  from  December  to 
the  first  of  April. 

The  Newtown  pippin. — This  is  a New  Jersey  production ; 
the  finest  apple  in  our  country.  It  flourishes  with  us,  but 
its  fruit  is  not  so  fine  as  those  grown  in  New  Jersey.  In 
some  situations  it  however  succeeds  almost  as  well  as  in 
New  Jersey,  and  is  well  worthy  of  a place  in  every  garden, 
as  its  fruit  will  keep  till  May. 

The  Roxbury  russeting. — This  is  a standard  natural  fruit 
of  Massachusetts.  Every  other  year  it  is  a great  bearer. 
Its  fruit  is  pleasant  for  the  table  from  January  to  July, 
if  kept  in  a cold  place.  We  add  nothing  further  in  favour 
of  the  Roxbury  russeting,  because  its  great  merits  for  our 


FRUITS.. 


131 


climate  are  well  known.  We  can  find  no  reason  to  be- 


lieve that  it  was  ever  known  in  any  other  country. 

Rhode  Island  greening, — This,  too,  seems  to  be  a Yankee 
production,  and  a most  valuable  tree  it  is.  It  bears  in  al- 
ternate years.  It  is  too  great  a bearer.  The  tree  is 
inclined  to  bend  down,  and  bear  low.  This  fault  should 
be  corrected.  It  is  principally  valuable  as  a cooking  apple, 
ill  which  respect  it  is  superior  to  any  other.  For  the  table 
it  is  good  only  when  better  fruit  cannot  be  had. 

Gardner'^s  sweeting, — This  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
apples  for  baking.  It  bears  in  alternate  years.  It  will 
keep  till  April,  but  it  is  prone  to  rot. 

There  are  a great  variety  of  sweet  apples  for  summer 
and  winter  use,  and  many  fine  varieties  of  winter  apples, 
which  we  have  omitted.  Every  one  knows  the  nonesuch^ 
and  the  pearmain^  superior  to  almost  any  in  our  list, 
but  both  appear  to  us  to  be  on  the  decline,  though  we  rec- 
ommend their  culture,  on  a small  scale,  to  all  who  have 
extent  of  ground  * our  object  being  simply  to  select  for 
small  cultivators  the  most  approved  varieties.  Coxe, 
of  New  Jersey,  the  earliest  and  most  extensive  cultivator 
on  a great  scale,  has  recommended  the  following  selection 
of  apples ; and  in  his  judgment  we  place  great  reliance  : — 


Juneting’,  ripens  i: 
Prince's  harvest. 
Boudi  apple, 
Early  pearmain, 
Summer  rose, 
Codling, 

Maiden's  blush, 
Hagloe's  crab, 
Catline, 

Rambo, 

Fall  pippin. 
Doctor  apple, 


June  and  July. 
July, 
do. 

Aupjst. 

ao. 

September. 

do. 

do. 

do. 

October. 

do. 

do. 


Wine,  ripens  in  November. 

Late  pearmain,  do. 

Bell-nower. 

Newark  pippin. 

Pennock. 

Michael  Henry,  November. 
Spitzenberg. 

Newtown  pippin. 

Priestley. 

Pom  me  d’api. 

Car-house. 


We  think  our  own  selection  preferable  for  these  Nor- 
thern States. 

Pears. — Petit  Muscat, — To  those  who  wish  to  have 


the  earliest  possible  ripe  pear,  this  insignificant  but  prema- 
ture pear  may  be  desirable. 

Rouselet  hatif, — This  pear  is  beautiful,  and  highly  fla- 
voured, and  one  small  tree  is  all  that  any  cultivator  would 
desire.  We  know  it  by  the  name  of  Catherine,  or,  as  it  is 
pronounced,  Kattern, 

Madeleine^  or  green  chissell, — This  is  a fine  summer  pear. 

Skinless  pear,,  or  hlmquette  d longue  queue ^ is  a delicious, 
but  short-lived  pear. 

Epargne  is  a pleasant  pear* 


132 


FRUITS. 


Red  bergamot  is  a beautiful  pear  of  the  flavour  of  the 
bergamots. 

The  real  Jargonelle  is  one  of  the  finest  summer  pears. 
It  is  a great  and  constant  bearer,  and  comes  in  between  the 
smaller  fruits  of  the  garden,  the  strawberry  and  raspberry, 
and  the  peach.  As  seen  in  Boston  market,  it  is  a carica- 
ture of  the  fruit  raised  by  the  cultivator  for  his  own  use. 
It  is  gathered  unripe,  and  artificially  ripened  by  being  put 
up  in  great  masses. 

The  summer  good  Christian  is  a luscious  and  juicy  pear, 
but  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  raise  it  in  the  country,  being 
subject  to  spots  and  cracks. 

Salviati^  ripening  early  in  August,  is  a delicious  pear  in 
good  soils  : in  poor  land  it  is  of  no  value. 

Broca'^s  bergamot  is  one  of  the  finest  pears  grown  in  shel- 
tered situations ; but  in  exposed  ones,  its  leaves  fail,  and 
its  fruit  is  acid. 

The  grey  beurre^  the  prince  of  pears  in  Boston,  and  in 
the  sheltered  gardens  of  France,  is  of  no  value  in  the  coun- 
try, unless  on  walls,  or  in  gardens  sheltered  by  walls  or 
hills. 

Seckle  pear. — This  is  the  greatest  acquisition  yet  made 
to  the  list  of  pears  for  New  England  culture.  It  is  hardy, 
bears  every  year,  is  subject  to  no  casualty,  and  its  flavour^ 
to  most  persons,  is  the  finest  of  any  pear  yet  known.^  It 
lasts  about  six  weeks,  from  Sept.  15th  to  Nov.  1st.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  a native.  No  man  should  be  without  three 
or  four  of  them. 

Moor-fowl  egg.- — This  pear  ripens  in  November ; is  deli- 
cious, though  of  a peculiar  flavour. 

There  is  a variety  of  this  pear,  which  is  striped,  in  the 
garden  of  John  C.  Gray,  Esq.,  at  Cambridge. 

The  St.  MichaePs  pear^  by  the  French  called  Doyenne. — ■ 
This  pear  was,  till  lately,  the  pride  of  our  gardens.  Beau- 
tiful beyond  any  other  pear,  melting,  and  extremely  sweet, 
it  bore  the  palm  of  all  autumnal  pears.  Causes  unknown 
have,  for  ten  successive  years,  blighted  its  fruit ; yet  we 
advise  the  continued  culture  of  it,  because  we  have  seen 
the  peach,  after  fifteen  years  of  failure,  resume  its  wonted 
fertility  and  vigour. 

Messire  Jean. — This  is  an  admirable  pear  ; hardy,  pro^ 
lific,  of  a breaking  texture,  extremely  sweet,  and  ripening 
in  November  and  December.  It  seems  to  us  to  be  rather 
on  the  decline,  but,  in  new  gardens,  it  may  revive. 

The  Amory.,  or  Gibson^  or  Andrews  pear. — These  various 


FRUITS. 


133 


names  are  only  given  because  we  are  ignorant  of  the  real 
name.  It  is  a European  pear,  unquestionably,  and  the 
new  names  are  only  given  to  the  same  tree,  because  the 
same  identical  tree  has  had,  in  the  same  garden,  three  suc- 
cessive owners. 

It  is  a very  fine,  but  transient  pear,  of  beautiful  form,  and 
excellent  qualities,  ripening  in  September,  which  lessens 
its  value. 

The  Bergamotte  Cressanne, — This  pear,  in  perfection, 
though  rather  austere,  has  all  the  high  flavour  of  the  hergor 
mot  family  ; but  it  is  more  apt  to  crack  than  any  other 
pear  whatever.  The  writer  of  this  article,  after  twenty 
years’  trial,  has  been  compelled  to  regraft  them  all.  It  will 
not  suit  the  country,  unless  sheltered. 

The  Virgalouse, — This,  one  of  the  finest  pears  of  France, 
is  subject  to  the  same  evil  as  the  foregoing,  and  we  sol- 
emnly warn  the  cultivators  in  the  country  not  to  try  it 
unless  they  have  terraces  or  walls. 

The  Colmar, — The  same  remarks  will  apply  to  this  pear 
also.  We  speak  from  long  experience,  and  from  the  expe- 
rience of  other  eminent  cultivators.  We  must  not  listen  to 
French  or  American  writers.  This  pear  is  not  suited,  with 
us,  but  to  the  city,  or  to  the  opulent  cultivators,  who  make 
an  artificial  shelter  for  their  trees  either  by  walls,  or  build- 
ings, or  terraces. 

The  St,  Germain, — This  most  noble  variety  of  the  pear 
family  succeeded  as  well  in  the  country  as  in  town  dur- 
ing the  first  twenty  years  of  our  knowledge  of  it,  but  it  hag 
failed  during  nearly  fifteen  years.  It  has  seemed  to  be 
recovering,  and  we  should  advise  the  continued  culture  of 
it  for  a few  years  longer,  as  it  is  superior  to  any  pear  except 
the  following. 

The  Ambrette, — This  pear  was  introduced  into  this  state 
in  1812.  Mr.  Coxe,  who  sent  it  here,  called  it  the  -4m- 
brette.  It  is  an  ordinary  pear  in  its  appearance ; a strong, 
vigorous,  great-bearing  tree.  Not  knowing  its  character,  it 
was  first  eaten  as  soon  as  it  was  soft ; but  accident  obliging 
us  to  keep  it  longer,  it  proved  to  be  one  of  the  best  win- 
ter pears  grown  in  our  climate.  It  has  high  praise  in 
France.  Its  merit  with  us,  however,  is,  that  it  bears  our 
climate  perfectly.  One  small  tree,  imported  in  1812,  bore 
five  barrels  of  fruit  in  1816. 

Of  the  baking  pears  there  are  many  varieties  : — 

The  pound  pear  is  a great  bearer,  and  makes  a valuable 
baking  and  stewing  pear. 


134 


FRUITS, 


The  iron  pear^  so  called  in  this  vicinity,  is  nearly  as 
valuable,  as  the  fruit  is  new  sound  in  the  month  of  April. 

The  Catillac  is  also  valuable  from  the  same  qualities,  and 
is  much  more  beautiful. 

The  Spanish  good  Christian  is  also  a great  bearer,  and 
fitted  for  the  same  purposes. 

We  may  now  add  the  valuable  varieties  of  pears  sent  to 
this  country  by  Mr.  Knight,  with  many  more  introduced 
by  that  indefatigable  and  most  successful  cultivator  of 
fruits  in  New  England,  Samuel  G.  Perkins,  Esq.  of  Brook- 
line, to  whom  our  northern  horticulture  is  deeply  indebted 
for  his  liberal  dissemination  of  his  new  and  valuable 
varieties. 

Mr.  Knight’s  trees  are  all  of  them  entirely  new^  not,  as 
has  been  supposed,  by  him,  but  principally  by  Mr. 

Van  Mons,  of  the  Netherlands.  The  new  kinds,  thus  in- 
troduced, are  as  follows  : — 

Cassiomont. — This  pear  has  borne  fruit.  It  ripens  in 
September — is  of  a fair  size,  beautiful  to  the  eye,  and  deli- 
cious to  the  taste ; well  adapted  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
Sl  .MichaePsj  should  it  fail  us. 

Napoleon^  said  to  ripen  in  October,  is  described  as  a fine 
fruit — has  not  borne  in  this  country. 

Marie  Louise  is  equally  recommended — ripening  in 
October — is  showing  abundance  of  fruit  the  present 
year. 

Biierre  Knox  showed  its  fruit  in  1826 — a beautiful  and 
large  pear,  of  buttery  texture,  ripening  in  October — is  also  in 
fruit  this  year. 

Tillinglon — praised  as  a beautiful  fruit — not  in  bearing. 

Passe  Colmar — a late  fruit — not  in  bearing. 

Colmar  d'^hyver — n late  fruit — not  in  bearing. 

Harden  pant  de  Printems — showing  fruit  this  year,  and 
presumed  to  be  the  best  fruit  of  the  pear  kind  for  our  cli- 
mate— ripening  in  April  and  May. 

Poire  d'^Aremberg — also  represented  as  an  excellent 
pear.  Mr.  Perkins  has  also  received  many  other  new  va- 
rieties, among  which  we  recollect  the  Charles  d'^Autriche 
2ind  the  Sylvan che, 

I'he  only  object  in  introducing  into  this  list  these  new 
varieties,  is  to  say,  that  though  we  have  distributed  several 
thousand  scions  and  buds,  and  although  we  have  been  rob- 
bed of  many  more,  yet  we  have  so  many  flouHshing  shoots, 
that  we  shall  be  able  to  furnish  as  many  buds  the  ensuing 
season,  and  grafts  the  season  following,  as  we  have  ever 


FRUITS. 


13S 


been  able  to  do,  having  kept  the  trees  in  a bush  state,  to 
encourage  the  growth  of  shoots  for  cultivation. 

Peaches. — This  class  of  fruits  is  so  natural  to  our 
country,  that  a great  variety,  unknown  to  European  culti- 
vators, are  found,  of  very  considerable  merit.  We  shall 
therefore  take  notice  of  the  varieties  only  more  particularly 
distinguished. 

The  two  varieties  of  nutmeg  peaches  have  no  merit  what- 
ever, except  their  great  precocity.  The  earliest  peach  of 
any  value  is  the  early  Anne^  a white  and  very  tolerable 
peach. 


The  white  Magdalen, 
The  royal  Kensington, 
The  alberge. 

The  swalsh, 

The  noblesse. 


The  red  Magdalen, 
T'he  admirable. 

The  old  Newington, 
The  teton  de  Venus, 
Jaques^  rareripe. 


These  we  can  recommend  as  excellent  fruits.  There 


are  many  others  of  excellent  quality,  both  foreign  and 
native  ; but  these  will  suffice  for  a moderate-sized 
garden.  ' 

There  are  a great  variety  of  native  peaches,  the  value  of 
which  is  often  as  great  as  that  of  any  peaches  which  have 
names,  particularly  of  those  which  have  a yellow  flesh. 
The  yellow-fleshed  peaches  are  more  apt  to  propagate  their 
like  from  the  stone  than  any  other  peaches. 

The  nectarine, — Though  this  fruit  is  nothing  but  a smooth 
peach,  yet  it  is  far  more  tender,  and  requires  either  a wall, 
or  a fence,  or  the  side  of  some  building,  to  protect  it.  The 
varieties  are  not  numerous.  The  best  are. 


The  Elruge  j ripens  in  August. 
The  white  j a beautiful  fruit  5 — 
September. 

Lewises  nectarine,  a Boston  pro- 
duction 5 beautiful  j yellow- 


fleshed  ; ripens  in  September. 
Late  Newington  j rich  and  melt- 
ing j September. 

Red  Roman ; a beautiful  and 
highly  flavoured  variety. 


There  are  seven  or  eight  others,  but  these  we  recom- 
mend. 

The  apricot, — This  requires  some  shelter  also ; should  be 
planted  in  a yard,  or  on  the  south  side  of  a building ; if 
nailed  to  it  as  an  espalier,  the  better.  The  best  are, 


The  Breda,  | The  Brussels,  | The  Moor  park,  | The  peach  apricot. 

Cherry. — The  varieties  are  innumerable.  For  small 


gardens  we  recommend 

The  May  duke,  for  its  earliness. 

The  common  white-heart ; 

The  bigarou,  or  late  white-heart, 
The  early  and  the  late  black-heart, 

Mr  Knight’s  new  sorts 


The  black  Tartarean, 

The  red  mazard  new  variety,  ceJled 
the  Downer  cherry. 

are  not  yet  tested  here. 


136 


GARLICK. 


For  pies  and  puddings,  as  well  as  for  lateness,  every 
garden  should  have  a Morello,  which  is  very  juicy, 
though  very  acid. 

Plum. — The  best  plum  known  is  the  green  gage, 
which  the  French  call  Reine  Claude.  Others  of  esteemed 
value  are  the 


Violet, 
Orleans, 
Fotheringham, 
Drop  d'or. 


Coe’s  golden  drop. 
Red  imperial. 
White  imperial. 

La  royale. 


Berries. — The  English  garden  mulberry  is  a highly 
esteemed  fruit,  but  it  is  apt  to  be  winter-killed  in  our  cli- 
mate, unless  in  sheltered  spots. 

Gooseberry. — This  is  a fine  fruit,  as  brought  to  perfection 
in  Great  Britain.  The  varieties  are  almost  infinite.  The 
gardeners  have  given  names  to  several  hundred.  The  only 
direction  should  be  to  send  the  best  Lancashire  or  Scotch 
gooseberries,  of  various  colours.  They  are  white,  green, 
yellow,  red,  and  dark  purple.  Some  of  the  smaller  sorts 
are  better  flavoured  th  an  any  of  the  larger  kinds. 

Currant. — There  are  but  three  sorts  worth  cultivation — 
the  large  Dutch  white ; the  large  Dutch  red ; and  the 
Champaigne,  or  pink-coloured,  as  a variety. 

Raspberry. — There  are  only  two  sorts  of  any  great  value — 
the  white  Antwerp,  and  the  red  Antwerp.  The  cane,  or 
smooth-stalked,  is  also  praised  by  some  persons,  but  we 
have  had  no  success  with  it;  it  seems  to  us  to  be  our  native 
raspberry. 

Strawberry. — For  the  chief  crop,  the  red  and  white 
Alpine  are  the  most  prolific : for  show  and  flavour,  the 
pine-apple,  the  roseberry,  the  scarlet  or  Virginia,  and 
Knight’s  Downton,  seem  to  us  to  include  all  that  need  be 
desired.  Mr.  Parmentier,  of  Long  Island,  has  introduced  a 
sort  without  runners,  which  are  said  to  bear  twice.  We 
have  not  seen  them,  though  they  are  growing  here. 

GARLICK. — Allium  sativum. — Garlic  is  a hardy,  peren- 
nial plant,  with  a bulbous  root,  which  grows  naturally  in 
Sicily  and  the  south  of  France.  The  leaves  are  linear, 
long  and  narrow.  The  bulb  is  composed  of  a dozen  or  fif- 
teen subordinate  bulbs,  called  cloves. 

Culture. — Garlic  is  propagated  by  planting  the  cloves, 
or  subdivisions  of  the  bulbs,  and  prefers  a ‘‘  light,  dry  soil, 
rich,  but  not  recently  dunged.  In  February,  March,  or  begin- 
ning of  April,  having  some  large,  full  bulbs,  divide  them  into 
separate  cloves,  and  plant  them  singly  in  beds,  in  rows 


GOOSEBERRY. 


137 


lengthwise.  Set  them  from  six  to  nine  inches  asunder,  two 
or  three  indies  deep,  either  in  drills  or  in  holes  made  with  a 
blimt-ended  dibble.  In  placing  the  cloves  in  drills,  thrust 
the  bottom  a little  into  the  ground,  and  earth  them  over  the 
proper  depth.” — Loudon. 

M‘]\Iahou  says,  garlic,  rocambole  and  shallots,  may 
be  planted  in  October  or  November,  and  observes,  that, 
when  planted  at  this  season  in  dry,  light,  rich  ground,  the 
roots  will  be  much  larger  than  if  deferred  till  spring.” 
Taking  the  crop. — “ The  maturity  of  the  bulbs  is  discov- 
erable by  the  leaves  changing  yellowish,  in  a decaying 
state ; when  they  may  be  taken  wholly  up.  Continue  the 
stalky  part  of  the  leaves  to  each  root ; spread  them  in  the 
sun  to  dry  and  harden,  and  then  lie  them  in  bunches  by  the 
stalks,  and  house  them,  to  keep  for  use  as  wanted  : they 
will  remain  good  till  the  next  spring  and  summer.  If,  in 
their  advancing  growth,  some  are  required  for  present  use, 
before  attaining  maturity,  a few  of  the  early  planting  may 
be  drawn  in  May  or  June  ‘ but  permitting  the  general  sup- 
ply to  attain  full  growth  as  above.” — Ahercromhie. 

Use. — It  is  used  by  many  nations  very  extensively  in 
cookery,  both  for  seasoning  and  for  food ; but  not  so  much 
by  the  English  or  Americans  for  that  purpose.  The  med- 
ical properties  of  garlic  are  various.  In  dropsical  com- 
plaints, asthmas,  and  agues,  it  is  said  to  have  been  success- 
fully used.  Some  instances  have  occurred,  in  deafness,  of 
the  beneficial  effects  of  wrapping  a clove  of  garlic  in  muslin, 
and  putting  it  into  the  ear.  As  a medicine  internally  taken, 
it  is  usually  administered  as  a bolus,  or  made  into  pills.  Its 
imell  is  considered  as  an  infallible  remedy  against  vapours, 
and  as  useful  in  nearly  all  the  nervous  disorders  to  which 
females  are  subject.  An  oil  is  sometimes  prepared  from 
garlic,  which  is  so  heavy  as  to  sink  in  water  ; but  the  vir- 
tues of  this  pungent  vegetable  are  more  perfectly  and  more 
readily  extracted  by  spirit  of  wine  than  in  any  other  way. 
A syrup  also  is  made  of  it. 

“ The  juice  of  garlic  is  said  to  be  the  best  and  strongest 
cemeat  that  can  be  adopted  for  broken  glass  and  china, 
leaving  little  or  no  mark  if  used  with  care.  Snails,  worms, 
and  the  grubs  or  larvae  of  insects,  as  well  as  moles  and 
other  vermin,  may  all  be  driven  away  by  placing  prepara- 
tions of  garlic  in  or  near  their  haunts.” — Dom.  Encyc. 

GOOSEBERRY. — Ribes  grossularia. — The  gooseberry 
is  a native  of  several  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  to 
great  perfection  in  Lancashire,  in  England.  Loudon  says, 
12^ 


J38 


GOOSEBERRY 


Happily,  this  wholesome  and  useful  fruit  is  to  he  found  m 
almost  every  cottage  garden  in  Britain,  and  it  ought  to  be 
considered  a part  of  every  gardener’s  duty  to  encourage  the 
introduction  of  its  most  useful  varieties  in  these  humble  en- 
closures. In  Lancashire  and  some  of  the  adjoining  coun- 
ties, almost  every  cottager,  who  has  a garden,  cultivates  the 
gooseberry  with  a view  to  prizes,  given  at  what  are  called 
gooseberry  prize  meetings  ; of  these  there  is  annually  pub- 
lished an  account,  with  the  names  and  weight  of  the  suc- 
cessful sorts,  in  what  is  called  the  Manchester  Gooseberry^ 
Book,  The  prizes  vary  from  10  5.  to  5 or  £ 10  ; the  sec- 
ond, third,  to  the  sixth  and  tenth  degrees  of  merit,  receiv- 
ing often  proportionate  prizes.  There  are  meetings  held 
in  th(5  spring  to  ^ make  up,’  as  the  term  is,  the  sorts,  the 
persons,  and  the  conditions  of  the  exhibition  ; and  in  Au- 
gust, to  weigh  and  taste  the  fruit,  and  determine  the  prizes.” 

Varieties, — Loudon  says,  “ The  present  lists  of  the  Lon- 
don nursery-men  contain  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  names ; 
hut  those  of  some  of  the  Lancashire  growers  above  three 
hundred.  Forsyth,  in  1800,  mentions  ten  sorts  as  com- 
mon ; and  adds  a list  of  forty-three  new  sorts  grown  in 
Manchester.” 

Propagation, — ^The  gooseberry  may  be  propagated  by  all 
the  modes  applicable  to  trees,  or  shrubs ; even  by  pieces 
of  the  roots ; but  the  mode  by  cuttings  is  usually  adopted 
for  continuing  varieties,  and  that  by  seeds  for  procuring 
them. 

By  seeds, — So  far  as  we  know,  the  scientific  mode  of  im- 
pregnating one  variety  with  another  has  not  been  applied 
to  this  fruit.  In  general,  the  seed  of  some  choice  variety, 
thoroughly  ripe,  is  taken,  and  sown  in  autumn,  or  early  in 
the  spring,  in  beds  or  pots  of  rich,  light,  mellow  earth : 
when  tlie  plants  are  a year  old,  they  are  planted  out  in 
nursery  rows,  to  be  cultivated  and  trained  there  a year  or 
two  : in  general,  they  will  bear  the  third  year. 

By  cuttings. — The  best  season  for  planting  gooseberry 
cuttings  is  in  autumn,  just  before  the  leaves  begin  to  fall : 
early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  sufficiently 
thawed,  however,  will  answer  nearly  as  well.  The  cut- 
tings should  be  taken  from  the  bearing  shoots.  Cut  them 
to  such  a length  as  the  strength  and  ripeness  of  the  wood 
will  bear,  and  cut  off  all  the  buds  except  three,  or  at  most 
four,  at  top.  and  train  the  plants  with  a single  stem  of  nine 
inches  or  a foot  high,  from  the  top  of  which  the  branches 
should  ratliate  upwards  at  an  angle  of  40®,  or  better  if  46®. 


GOOSEBERRY. 


139 


Haynes,  an  English  writer,  advises  taking  off  cuttings  in 
July,  when  the  fruit  is  on  the  tree,  in  order  to  make  sure 
of  the  sorts ; and  says,  by  immediate  planting,  watering, 
and  shading,  as  good  plants  are  produced  as  from  ripe  wood 
cuttings. 

“ Soil  and  site, — Any  good  garden-soil,  on  a dry  bottom, 
and  well  manured,  will  suit  the  gooseberry.  That  which 
is  soft  and  moist  produces  the  largest  fruit.  The  situation 
should  not  be  under  the  drip  of  trees  over-much  shaded  or 
confined,  otherwise  the  fruit  will  be  small,  ill-flavoured,  and 
the  plants  apt  to  mildew.  Forsyth  says,  gooseberries  should 
be  dunged  every  year,  or  at  least  have  a good  coat  of  dung 
once  in  two  years.  Haynes  recommends  a mixture  of  peat 
and  loam  well  manured,  and  a shaded  situation.  The  last 
he  proposes  to  effect  by  planting,  among  his  compartments 
of  gooseberries,  rows  of  Jerusalem  artichokes  in  the  direc- 
tion of  east  and  west.” — Loudon. 

Final  planting. — “ The  season  for  planting  gooseberries 
is  any  time  during  open  weather,  from  October  till  March 
[or  the  1st  of  April  in  New  England].  When  trees  are 
procured  from  the  public  nurseries,  choose  such  as  are  of 
some  advanced  size,  about  three  years’  growth,  with  pretty 
full  heads,  for  immediate  plentiful  bearers.  Let  the  gene- 
ral supply  be  in  standard  bushes,  and  planted  principally 
in  the  Idtchen-garden,  in  single  rows,  along  the  boundary 
edges  of  the  main  compartments.  When  the  object  is  to 
raise  large  quantities  of  fruit,  plantations  are  made  in  con- 
tinued parallel  rows,  eight  or  ten  feet  asunder,  by  six  feet 
in  the  row.  It  would  be  eligible  to  plant  a few  sorts 
against  south  and  other  sunny  walls,  or  paling,  for  earlier 
and  larger  fruit ; and  on  north  walls  to  ripen  late  in  suc- 
cession.”— Abercrombie. 

Forsyth  says,  ‘‘The  market-gardeners  about  London 
plant  them  in  rows,  from  eight  to  ten  feet  apart  from  row 
to  row,  and  six  feet  from  plant  to  plant,  in  the  rows.  In 
small  gardens  I would  recommend  planting  them  in  a com- 
partment by  themselves,  at  the  distance  of  six  feet  between 
the  rows,  and  four  feet  from  plant  to  plant ; or  you  may 
plant  them  round  the  edges  of  the  compartments,  about 
three  feet  from  the  path ; you  will  then  have  the  ground 
clear  for  cropping,  and  a man,  by  setting  one  foot  on  the 
border,  can  gather  the  gooseberries  without  injuring  the 
crop.” 

Neill  says,  “ In  some  places,  gooseberry-trees,  on  the 
sides  of  the  borders,  are  trained  to  a single  tall  stem,  which 


140 


GOOSEBERilY. 


is  tied  to  a stake  ; this,  though  six  or  eight  feet  high,  occa- 
sions scarcely  any  shade  on  the  border,  and  it  does  not 
occupy  much  room,  nor  exclude  air;  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  stem  becomes  hung  close  with  berries,  and  makes 
a pleasant  appearance  in  that  state.” — Edbu  Encyc,  art. 
Horticulture. 

Mode  of  bearing. — The  gooseberry  produces  its  fruit  not 
only  on  the  shoots  of  last  summer,  and  on  shoots  two  or 
three  years  old,  but  also  on  spurs  or  snags  arising  from  the 
elder  branches  along  the  sides ; but  the  former  afford  the 
largest  fruit.  The  shoots  retained  for  bearers  should,  there- 
fore, be  retained  at  full  length,  or  nearly  so.” — Abercrombie. 

Pruning. — The  bushes  will  require  a regular  pruning 
twice  in  the  year.” 

Summer  pruning, — Where  any  bushes  are  crowded  with 
cross  and  water  shoots  of  the  same  year,  shading  the  fruit  from 
the  sun,  and  preventing  the  access  of  air,  thin  the  heart  of 
the  plant  and  other  tufted  parts  moderately,  pinching  off 
or  cutting  out  close  what  spray  is  removed  ; but  do  not 
touch  the  summer  shoots  in  general.”  Maher  says,  It 
will  greatly  contribute  tp  the  perfection  of  the  fruit,  if  the 
very  small  berries  are  taken  away  with  a pair  of  scissors, 
about  the  middle  or  end  of  May  ; and  these  small  berries 
will  be  found  quite  as  good  for  sauce,  or  gooseberry-cream, 
as  the  larger.” 

Winter  pruning. — “You  may  proceed  to  the  winter  prun- 
ing any  time  from  November  until  the  end  of  February, 
or  until  the  buds  are  so  swelled  that  further  delay  'would 
endanger  their  being  rubbed  off  in  the  operation.  Cut  out 
the  cross-shoots  and  water-shoots  of  the  preceding  summer, 
and  the  superfluous  among  crowded  branches.  Prune  long 
ramblers  and  low  stragglers  to  some  well  placed  lateral  or 
eye ; or,  if  an  under-straggler  spring  very  low,  cut  it  away. 
Of  last  year’s  shoots  retain  a suflicient  quantity  of  laterals 
and  terminals,  in  vacant  parts,  to  form  successional  bearers, 
and  to  supply  the  places  of  unfruitful  and  decayed  old 
wood,  which,  as  you  proceed,  should  be  removed.  Mostly 
retain  a leading  shoot  at  the  end  of  a principal  branch, 
leaving  it  either  naturally  terminal,  or,  where  the  branch 
would  thus  be  too  extended,  pruning  to  some  competent 
lateral  within  bounds.  The  superfluous  young  laterals  on 
the  good  main  branches,  instead  of  being  taken  off  clean, 
may  be  cut  into  little  stubs  of  one  or  tw^o  eyes  ; which  will 
*:  ,nd  out  fruit-buds  and  spurs.  Of  the  supply  reserved  for 
new  hearers,  a small  number  will  probably  require  shorten* 


GOOSEBERRY. 


141 


ing,  '^vhere  too  extended,  or  curv^ated  ’’'"‘rmmodiously;  leave 
these  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  length,  according  to 
strengtli  and  situation ; those  of  moderate  extent  and 
regular  growth  will  require  very  little  shortening,  and 
many  none  at  all.  Observe,  too  close  cutting,  or  general 
shortening,  occasions  a great  superfluity  of  wood  in  sum- 
mer ; for  the  multiplied  laterals,  thus  forced  from  the  eyes 
of  the  shortened  branches,  increase  to  a thicket,  so  as  to  re- 
tard the  growth,  and  prevent  the  full  ripening  of  the  fruit : 
on  which  account  it  is  an  important  part  of  pruning  to  keep 
the  middle  of  the  head  open  and  clear,  and  to  let  the  occa- 
sional shortening  of  the  shoots  be  sparing  and  moderate. 
Between  the  bearing  branches  keep  a regulated  distance 
of  at  least  six  inches  at  the  extremities,  which  will  render 
them  fertile  bearers  of  good  fruit.  Some  persons,  not 
pruning  the  gooseberry-tree  on  right  principles,  are  apt  to 
leave  the  shoots  excessively  close  and  tufted,  while  they 
shorten  the  whole  promiscuously ; others  sometimes  clip 
them  with  garden  shears  to  close,  round  heads  : in  conse- 
quence of  being  pruned  in  these  methods,  the  bushes  shoot 
crowdedly,  full  of  young  wood  in  summer,  from  which  the 
fruit  is  always  very  small,  and  does  not  ripen  freely  with 
full  flavour.’’ — Loudon, 

Forsyth  says,  Many  of  the  Lancashire  sorts  are  apt  to 
grow  horizontally,  and  the  branches  frequently  trail  on  the 
ground,  which  renders  them  liable  to  be  broken  by  high 
winds,  especially  w hen  they  are  loaded  with  fruit.  In  that 
case,  I would  recommend  two  or  three  hoops  to  be  put 
round  them,  to  which  the  branches  may  be  tied,  to  sup- 
port them,  and  prevent  their  being  broken  by  the  wind.” 

Prolonging  the  crop, — In  addition  to  planting  late  sorts 
in  shady  situations,  the  bushes,  whether  standards  or  train- 
ed, may  be  matted  over  when  the  fruit  is  ripe,  and,  in  this 
way,  some  of  the  reds,  as  the  Warrington,  and  the  thick- 
skinned  yellow  sorts^  as  the  Mogul,  will  keep  on  the  trees 
till  Christmas.” 

Insects, — The  gooseberry  is  infested  with  the  caterpillars 
of  several  species  of  flies,  and  various  methods  have  been 
prescribed  to  destroy  them,  which  are  detailed  by  Loudon. 
— Encyc,  of  Gard,  p.  734,  735.  The  applications  he  men- 
tions were,  generally,  made  by  means  of  watering-pans  and 
garden-engines,  and  the  substances  used  were  decoctions 
of  tobacco,  elder  leaves,  black  currant  leaves,  soap,  quick 
lime,  &c.  Mr.  Loudon  observes,  however,  that,  in  his 
opinion,  the  only  effectual  plan  seems  to  be  that  of  hand- 


143 


GOURD. 


picking,  which,  however  tedious  it  may  seem,  will  often  be 
found  a more  economical  mode  than  any  of  the  above. 
Hand-picking,  with  the  spring-generated  kinds,  should 
commence  as  soon  as  the  eggs  are  observed  on  the  under- 
sides of  the  leaves,  of  a white  colour,  and  not  thicker  than 
hairs  : the  whole  l^af  may  be  picked  off,  or  the  eggs  brush- 
ed or  sponged  off : with  the  winter  kinds,  it  ought  to 
commence  as  soon  as  they  leave  their  nidus  in  the  soil  or 
bark,  and  appear  on  the  leaves.” 

Preventive  treatment. — ‘‘  Sprinkling  gooseberry  and  cur- 
rant buslies  with  tar-water  prevents  the  fly  or  moth  from 
settling  on  the  plant  to  lay  its  eggs ; this  must  bedone  early 
in  the  spring,  for,  if  done  after  the  fruit  is  set,  it  will  taste 
of  tar.” — J.  Buschj  in  Hort.  Trans,  iv.  415. 

Forcing. — “ The  gooseberry  may  be  forced  in  pots  or 
boxes,  placed  in  pits,  or  in  the  peach-house  or  vinery.  Hay 
plants  in  pots  in  November,  removes  to  the  peach-house  in 
Janua.ry,  and  has  ripe  fruit  in  the  end  of  April,  which  he 
sends  to  the  table  growing  on  the  plants.” — Hort.  Trans. 
iv.  415. 

Use. — The  fruit  was  formerly  in  little  esteem,  but  it 
has  received  so  much  improvement,  that  it  is  now  consid- 
ered very  valuable  for  tarts,  pies,  sauces,  and  creams,  before 
being  ripe,  and,  when  at  maturity,  it  forms  a rich  dessert 
fruit  for  three  months,  and  is  preserved  in  sugar  for  the 
same  purpose,  and  in  water  for  the  kitchen.  Unripe  goose- 
berries can  be  preserved  in  bottles  of  water  against  winter ; 
the  bottles  are  filled  with  berries  close-corked  and  well- 
sealed  ; they  are  then  placed  in  a cool  cellar  till  wanted. 
By  plunging  the  bottles,  after  being  corked,  into  boiling 
water  for  a few  minutes,  (heating  them  gradually  to  pre- 
vent cracking,)  the  bottles  are  said  to  keep  better.” — Neill. 

Gooseberry  wine  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  currant 
wine,  except  that  one  third  less  sugar  is  required.  In 
picking  the  berries,  take  none  that  have  fallen  upon  the 
ground,  or  that  have  been  shaded  and  growm  sour. 

GOURD. — Cucurbita. — There  are  various  kinds  of 
gourds,  which  are,  in  this  country,  cultivated  rather  for  orna- 
ment than  use.  They  may  be  sowm  at  the  same  time,  and 
cultivated  in  the  same  manner,  as  melons  and  cucumbers  ; 
but  should  be  trained  to  trellises,  fences,  walls,  or  to  cover 
arbours.  The  large  bottle-gourds  {cucurbita  lagenaria) 
are  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  in  length,  and  the  shells  will 
hold  from  one  to  three  quarts.  They  are  light,  and  make 
good  dippers,  and,  with  good  usage,  wdll  last  years.  If, 


GRAFTING. 


143 


after  a few  gourds  have  set,  the  ends  of  the  vines  are  pinch- 
ed off,  the  fruit  will  be  larger  and  better.  The  bicoloured 
gourd  (ciicurbita  bicolor)  is  a small,  beautiful,  round  fruity 
one  part  a deep  green,  and  the  other  a bright  yellow.  On- 
ly ornamental.”— Z)r.  Grec7i, 

GRAFTING  is  the  taking  a shoot  from  one  tree,  and  in- 
serting it  into  another,  in  such  a manner  that  both  may 
unite  closely,  and  become  one  tree.  Its  use  is  to  propagate 
any  curious  sorts  of  fruits,  so  as  to  be  sure  of  the  kinds, 
which  cannot  be  done  by  any  other  method. 

The  grafts  or  scions  should  be  cut  otF  from  the  trees  be- 
fore their  buds  begin  to  swell,  which  is  generally  three 
weeks  or  a month  before  the  season  for  grafting.  They 
may  be  buried  in  ground  half  their  length,  and  their  tops 
covered  with  dry  litter.  If  a small  joint  of  the  former 
year’s  wood  is  cut  off  with  the  scion,  it  will  preserve  it  the 
better,  and  be  more  likely  to  take  when  grafted.  If  the 
scions  are  to  be  carried  any  considerable  distance,  it  will  be 
best  to  stick  their  lower  end  in  a potato,  or  a lump  of  well- 
tempered,  moist  clay,  and  then  wrap  them  up  in  moss, 
which  will  preserve  them  fresh  a month,  or  longer. 

The  best  grafts  are  from  trees  raised  from  seed ; next, 
those  raised  from  cuttings;  but  those  of  trees  raised  from 
suckers  should  be  rejected.  They  should  be  shoots  of  the 
last  year’s  growth,  and  should  be  chosen  from  the  outside 
lateral  branches  of  healthy  trees,  The  middle  part  of  each 
shoot  makes  the  best  scions ; but  long  shoots,  and  especially 
where  the  scion  is  of  a rare  variety,  maybe  cut  into  several 
scions  of  four  or  six  inches  in  length,  reserving  not  fewer 
than  two,  nor  more  than  five  eyes  to  form  the  future  head 
of  the  tree. 

The  best  stocks  are  such  as  have  been  allowed  much 
room  in  the  nursery ; those  planted  very  close  have  the 
wood  soft,  and  the  grafts  on  them  are  not  fruitful. 

The  materials  for  grafting  are,  a strong  pruning  knife  for 
cutting  off  the  heads  of  the  stocks,  previous  to  their  prepa- 
ration by  the  grafting  knife,  for  the  scion  ; a small  saw  for 
large  stocks  ; and  a penknife  for  very  small  scions  ; a chis- 
el and  mallet  for  cleft  grafting;  bands  or  strings  to  tie  the 
grafts  with  ; and  grafting  clay. 

Grafting  clay  should  be  prepared  at  least  ten  days  previ- 
ous to  its  being  wanted.  Loudon  directs  to  prepare  it  as 
follows  : Take  either  stiff  yellow  or  blue  clay,  or  clayey 

loam  or  brick  earth ; in  either  case  adding  thereto  about  a 
fourth  part  of  fresh  horse-dung,  free  from  litter,  and  a por- 


144 


GRAFTING* 


tion  of  cut  hay,  mixing  the  whole  together,  and  adding  a 
little  water ; then  let  the  whole  be  well  beaten  with  a stick  [or 
wrought  with  a hoe]  upon  a floor,  or  other  hard  substance ; 
and,  as  it  becomes  too  dry,  apply  more  water,  at  every  beat- 
ing turning  it  over ; and  continuing  beating  it  well  at  top  till 
it  becomes  flat  and  soft.  This  process  ought  to  be  repeat- 
ed more  or  less,  according  as  the  nature  of  the  clay  may 
require  to  render  it  ductile,  and  yet  not  so  tough  as  to  be 
apt  to  crack  in  dry  weather : for  instance,  it  should  be 
several  times  beaten  the  first  day ; and  the  next  morning 
repeat  the  beating,  still  moistening  it  with  water ; and  by 
thus  repeating  the  beating  several  times  every  day,  for  two 
or  three  days,  or  every  other  day  at  least,  for  a week,  it 
will  be  in  proper  order  for  use ; observing  that  it  should  be 
prepared  a week  at  least  before  it  is  used ; but  if  a month, 
the  better,  keeping  it  moist.  Some  recommend  salt  to  be 
mixed  with  the  clay,  and  others,  ashes  or  lime,  rubbish  or 
drift  sand ; the  object  in  these  cases  being  to  prevent  its 
cracking  with  the  sun ; which,  however,  the  horse-drop- 
pings, if  well  incorporated,  will,  in  general,  prevent.” 

The  grafting  clay  of  the  French  and  Dutch  is  composed 
of  half  cow-dung,  free  from  litter,  and  half  fresh  loam, 
equally  incorporated.  They  prefer  this  to  all  others  for 
excluding  the  external  air  from  wounds  in  trees,  &c.  of 
every  description,  and  ridicule  the  idea  of  certain  complex 
compositions.  A French  writer  on  agriculture  observes  of 
a noted  English  composition,  (Forsyth’s,  we  believe,)  that 
it  is  ‘‘  so  complicated  and  ridiculous  in  the  eyes  of  those 
who  have  any  knowledge  of  chymistry  or  natural  philoso- 
phy, that  it  is  a matter  of  astonishment  how  it  could  be 
proposed  in  our  age.” 

Substitutes  for  grafting  clay, — These  are  numerous.  Some 
of  them  are  specified  by  Loudon,  (Encyc.  of  Card,  p.  397,) 
and  in  Thacher'^s  Orchardist^  p.  37,  second  ed.  But  we 
have  been  assured  by  practical  orchardists  that  most  of 
these  are  injurious.  The  pitch,  tar,  rosin,  or  turpentine, 
which  composes  part  of  the  composition  of  most  or  all  of 
them,  is  injurious  to  vegetation,  and  will  not  withstand  the 
heat  of  summer. 

There  are  various  modes  of  grafting,  of  which  we  shall 
describe  some  of  the  most  common. 

1,  Whip~grafting^  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  tongue- 
grafting^  is  most  commonly  practised  in  nurseries  upon 
small  stocks.  The  stocks  and  the  scions  should  be  of  the 
same  or  nearly  the  same  size.  They  are  both  tc  be  sloped 


GIIAFTINU. 


J40 


off  a full  inch  or  more,  and  then  tied  closely  together.  This 
method  may  be  much  improved  by  performing  what  gar- 
deners call  tongueing  or  tipping  ; that  is,  by  making  an  in- 
cision in  the  bare  part  of  the  stock,  downwards,  and  a simi- 
lar slit  in  the  scion,  upwards : after  which,  they  are  to  be 
carefully  joined  together,  so  that  the  rinds  of  both  may  meet 
in  every  part,  when  a ligament  or  bandage  of  bass  is  to  be 
tied  round  the  scion,  to  prevent  it  from  being  displaced, 
and  the  whole  is  to  be  covered  over,  or  coated  over  with 
the  grafting  clay  above  described. 

2.  Cleft-grafting^  or  slit-grafting^  is  performed  on  stocks 
from  one  to  two  inches  diameter.  The  head  of  the  stock 
being  carefully  cut  off,  in  a sloping  direction,  a perpendicu- 
lar cleft,  or  slit,  is  to  be  made  about  two  inches  deep,  with 
a knife  or  chisel,  towards  the  back  of  the  slope,  into  which 
a wedge  is  to  be  driven,  in  order  to  keep  it  open  for  the 
admission  of  the  scion : the  latter  must  now  be  cut  in  a 
perpendicular  direction,  and  in  the  form  of  a wedge,  so  as 
to  fit  the  incision  in  the  stock.  As  soon  as  it  is  prepared, 
it  should  be  placed  in  the  cleft,  in  such  a manner  that  the 
inner  bark  of  both  the  stock  and  scion  may  meet  exactly 
together.  It  is  then  to  be  tied  with  a ligature  of  bass,  and 
clayed  over,  as  is  practised  in  whip-grafting^  three  or  four 
eyes  being  left  in  the  scion  uncovered.  It  should  be 
observed,  that,  in  making  the  cleft  in  the  stock,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  injure  the  pith,  the  scions  being  inserted  in 
the  sap-wood  of  the  stock  or  branch. 

3.  Crown-grafting  is  commonly  practised  upon  such 
stocks  as  are  too  large  and  stubborn  to  cleave.  It  is  some- 
times called  grafting  in  the  bark  or  rind,  from  the  scion 
being  inserted  between  the  bark  and  wood.  This  mode  of 
grafting  is  performed  with  best  effect  somewhat  later  than 
the  others,  as  the  motion  of  the  sap  renders  the  bark  and 
wood  of  the  stock  much  more  easily  separated  for  the 
admission  of  the  scions.  First  cut  or  saw  off  the  head  of 
the  stock  or  branch  horizontally,  or  level,  and  pare  the  top 
smooth  ; then,  having  the  scions,  cut  one  side  of  each  flat, 
and  samewhat  sloping,  an  inch  and  a half  long,  forming  a 
sort  of  a shoulder  at  the  top  of  the  slope,  to  rest  upon  the 
crown  of  the  stock  ; and  then  raise  the  rind  of  the  stock 
with  the  ivory  wedge,  forming  the  handle  of  the  budding 
knife,  (or  some  other  suitable  implement  of  a wedge-like 
shape,)  so  as  to  admit  the  scion  between  the  bark  and  tha 
wood  two  inches  down.  Then  place  the  scion  with  the 
cut  side  next  to  the  wood,  thrusting  it  down  far  enough  for 

13 


146 


GRAFTING. 


the  shoulder  to  rest  upon  the  top  of  the  stock ; and  in  thiis 
manner  may  be  put  three,  four,  five  or  more  scions,  in  one 
large  stock  or  branch.  It  is  alleged  as  a disadvantage 
attending  this  method,  in  exposed  situations,  that  the  in- 
grafted shoots,  for  two  or  three  years,  are  liable  to  be  blown 
out  of  the  stock  by  violent  winds ; the  only  remedy  for 
which  is,  tying  long  rods  to  the  body  of  the  stock  or  branchy 
and  tying  up  each  scion  and  its  shoots  to  one  of  the  rods. 

4.  Side-grafting  resembles  whip  or  tongue-grafting^  but 
differs  in  being  performed  on  the  side  of  the  stock,  without 
heading  down.  It  is  practised  on  wall-trees  to  fill  up 
vacancies,  and,  sometimes,  in  order  to  have  a variety  of 
fruits  upon  the  same  tree.  Having  fixed  upon  those  parts 
of  the  branches  where  wood  is  wanting  to  furnish  the  head 
or  any  part  of  the  tree,  there  slope  off  the  bark  and  a little 
of  the  wood,  and  cut  the  lower  end  of  the  scions  to  fit  the 
part  as  near  as  possible  \ then  join  them  to  the  branch,  tie 
them  with  bass,  and  clay  them  over. 

5.  Saddle-grafting  is  performed  by  first  cutting  the  top 
of  the  stock  into  a wedge-1  ik6  form,  and  then  splitting  up 
the  end  of  the  scion,  and  thinning  off  each  half  to  a tongue- 
shape  ; it  is  then  placed  on  the  wedge,  embracing  it  on 
each  side,  and  the  inner  barks  are  made  to  join  on  one 
side  of  the  stock,  as  in  cleft-grafting.  This  is  a very  strong 
and  handsome  mode  for  standard  trees,  when  grafted  at  the 
standard  height.  It  is  also  desirable  for  orange-trees  and 
rose-standards,  as  it  makes  a handsome  finish,  covering  a 
part  of  the  stock,  Vv^hich,  by  the  other  methods,  long 
remains  a black  scar,  and  sometimes  never  becomes  cov- 
ered with  bark.  The  stocks  for  this  purpose  should  not 
be  much  thicker  than  the  scions,  or  two  scions  may  be 
inserted. 

6.  Root-grafting  is  sometimes  performed,  in  nurseries, 

on  parts  of  the  roots  of  removed  trees,  when  the  proper 
stocks  are  scarce ; and  in  which  case  the  root  of  the  white- 
thorn has  been  resorted  to,  as  stock  both  for  the  apple  and 
pear.  In  general,  however,  a piece  of  the  root  of  the  tree 
of  the  same  genus  is  selected,  well  furnished  with  fibres, 
and  a scion  placed  on  it  in  any  of  the  ordinary  ways  for 
grafting  small  stocks.  Thus  united,  they  are  planted  so 
deep  as  to  cover  the  ball  of  clay,  and  leave  only  a few  eyes 
of  the  scion  above  ground.  A variety  of  this  kind  of  graft- 

ing, practised  by  Knight,  is  thus  described : ‘ Transplanting, 
many  years  ago,  some  pear-stocks  from  a seed-bed,  of 
which  the  soil  was  soft  and  deep,  I found  that  the  first- 


147 


erniited  roots  of  many  of  them  descended  a foot  or  more 
perpendicularly  into  the  earth,  before  they  divided  into  any 
lateral  ramilications ; and,  as  I did  not  like  to  replant  the 
young  trees,  with  such  an  inconvenient  length  of  perpen- 
dicular root,  I cut  oir  about  six  inches  from  each.  The 
amputated  parts  were  then  accurately  fitted  and  bound,  as 
ill  splice  or  lohip-grafling^  to  scions  of  pear-trees,  which 
were  selected  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the  same  size  ; and 
the  roots,  with  their  attached  branches,  were  deposited  in 
the  ground  as  cuttings,  so  deep  that  the  whole  of  the  root 
and  about  an  inch  of  the  scion  were  covered.  The  soil 
w'as  then  drawn  up  with  the  hoe  on  each  side  of  the  plants, 
which  were  placed  in  rows,  so  that  one  bud  only  of  each 
plant  was  above  the  soil,  and  the  other  just  within  it.  These 
grafts  succeeded  perfectly  well ; and  I have  subsequently 
repeated  the  same  experiment,  with  equal  success,  upon  the 
apple,  the  plum,  and  the  peach.  In  the  greater  part  of  these 
experiments,  the  roots  were  perfectly  cleansed  from  mould  by 
washing,  before  they  were  fitted  to  the  graft,  and  were  then 
placed  in  wet  moss,  till  a sufficient  number  were  ready  to 
be  carried  to  the  nursery;  a common  dibber  only  was  em- 
ployed in  planting  them ; but  the  mould  was  washed  into 
the  holes  with  water,  to  close  it  well  round  the  roots,  and 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  clay,  used  in  other  methods  of 
grafting.’ — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  i.  p.  239.  A variation  of  this 
mode  consists  in  leaving  that  part  of  the  tap-root  not  wanted, 
with  the  removed  tree,  undisturbed  in  the  soil,  and  grafting 
on  it  there.  Such  root-grafts  grow  with  uncommon 
vigour.” — Loudon. 

The  time  of  the  year  for  performing  the  above  kinds  of 
grafting  should  be,  when  the  sap  of  the  stock  has  begun  to 
move,  in  the  spring,  and  just  before  the  buds  are  unfolded. 

7.  Summer-grafting.  A letter  from  Abner  Landrum  to 
the  editor  of  the  American  Farmer.,  contains  the  following 
observations  on  this  subject : “About  the  1st  of  July,  when 
the  growth  of  some  trees  had  become  stationary,  I cut  a 
twig  of  the  pear-tree,  and  inserted  it  on  a nursery  stock, 
which  readily  grew  off.  I next  tried  almost  every  variety 
of  orchard  fruits,  which  succeeded  perfectly  well.  I was 
induced  to  make  this  experiment  from  the  rationality  of  the 
theory,  it  having  occurred,  upon  the  slightest  reflection,  that 
failures  in  spring-grafting  might  originate  from  the  dissipa- 
tion of  moisture  by  the  drying  winds  peculiar  to  that  season, 
before  the  sap  of  the  stock  acquires  sufficient  motion  to 
furnish  the  graft  with  due  nourishment ; but  from  the  rapid 


148 


GRAITING. 


motion  of  the  sap  in  some  stocks,  with  the  general  mois- 
ture of  the  air  during  midsummer,  the  operation  would  sel- 
dom fail ; and  the  result  fully  proved  this  conclusion  well 
founded.  It  next  occurred  to  me,  that  the  walnut,  fig,  and 
persimon,  which  will  not  succeed  in  the  spring,  except  by 
mere  chance,  might  now  answer  on  the  same  principle  of 
reasoning  : I accordingly  made  the  experiment,  and  suc- 
ceeded. 

“ To  make  the  success  of  suminer-grofting  certain,  take  the 
twigs  to  be  inserted  from  a tree  in  which  the  sap  is,  as  near 
as  possible,  stationary;  and  select  a stock  in  which  the  sap 
has  the  greatest  possible  motion.  July  is  the  proper  time 
for  summer-grafting,  and  indeed  the  most  suitable  month 
of  the  twelve  for  that  operation.  However,  the  operation 
may  be  performed,  with  tolerable  success,  during  the  remain- 
der of  the  summer  and  fall  months.’’ 

8.  Another  mode  of  engrafting  has  been  practised,  and 
we  believe  invented,  by  Col.  J.  F.  Wingate,  of  Bath,  in  the 
state  of  Maine.  The  process  and  its  advantages  are  thus 
described  in  a letter  from  Col.  Wingate  to  Gen.  H.  A.  S, 
Dearborn  : — ‘‘  The  instrument  best  adapted  to  the  purpose, 
and  which  I have  generally  made  use  of  in  the  operation, 
is  a common  budding-knife,  the  handle  of  which,  being 
smooth  and  thin,  is  well  designed  for  separating  the  bark 
from  the  wood  of  the  stock  ; and  this  is  performed  and  the 
scion  inserted  in  the  following  manner,  namely ; in  the  first 
place,  make  a horizontal  or  transverse  cut  upon  the  stock 
or  limb  to  be  engrafted,  according  to  its  size,  from  one  half 
to  one  and  a half  inch  in  length.  Then  at  the  left  end 
(this  being  the  most  convenient)  make  a perpendicular  cut 
downward,  (through  to  the  wood  in  both  cases,)  about  the 
same  length  ; take  a small  chip  from  the  bark  just  above 
the  horizontal  line,  or  cut  at  the  place  where  the  scion  is 
to  be  fixed,  deep  enough  to  allow  the  low^er  or  wedge  part 
of  it  to  meet  and  lay  close  to  the  inner  bark  or  sap-wood 
of  the  stock.  Raise  the  bark  as  in  budding,  and  separate 
it  sufficiently  from  the  wood  to  receive  the  scion,  which 
should  be  gently  pressed  into  the  proper  position,  and  there 
secured  by  slips  of  bass  mats,  or  some  other  soft  material, 
wound  around  the  limb  or  stock  so  as  to  cover  the  lower 
part  of  the  scion,  and  press  upon  the  bark  of  the  tree  the 
whole  length  of  the  perpendicular  cut ; after  which  I have 
il^enerally  rubbed  on  a thin  coat  of  engrafting  composition, 
for  the  purpose  of  excluding  the  dew  and  rain.  That  which 
I have  found  most  durable  and  effectual  for  this  purpose  is 


GJlAKTiNG. 


149 


made  of  equal  parts  of  rosin,  lard,  and  beeswax.  When 
cold,  it  may  be  cut  in  thin  slices  as  required  for  use,  warmed 
in  the  hand  sudiciently  to  apply  and  adhere  to  the  wood, — 
will  yield  to  its  growth,  and  remain  until  the  wound  is 
entirely  healed.  The  scion  should  be  of  the  usual  length, 
exposing  from  three  to  five  buds  : the  part  inserted  is  cut  in 
the  wedge  form,  very  much  as  in  the  ordinary  cleft-grafting, 
except  that  the  inner  side  must  be  bevelled  to  a proud  edge 
to  prevent  its  injuriously  opening  the  bark  of  the  stock 
beyond  the  scion,  and  opposite  to  the  perpendicular  cut. 
In  some  of  my  early  experiments,  I made  a shoulder  to  the 
scion  to  rest  upon  the  outside  bark  of  the  stock ; but  this 
proved  entirely  useless,  as  the  scion  invariably  first  took  on 
the  inner  part,  from  the  ascending  sap,  except  in  one 
instance,  in  which  I reversed  the  scion,  and  inserted  the  top 
downwards,  when,  after  some  delay,  it  appeared,  so  far  as  I 
could  discover  the  adhesion,  to  take  from  the  returning  sap 
in  the  outer  bark ; but  as  I made  only  a single  experiment 
of  this  kind,  and  the  scion  was  accidentally  removed  soon 
after  it  had  taken,  I am  unable  to  give  you  any  additional 
facts  respecting  it,  which  might  be  either  useful  or  interest- 
ing. 

‘‘  I will  now  state  what  I conceive  to  be  the  advantages  of 
the  present  over  the  ordinary  mode  of  engrafting  and  of 
budding.  Among  the  most  important,  I may  perhaps  say, 
that  it  can  be  performed  with  more  ease  and  with  greater 
facility, — that  the  scion  takes  more  readily  and  grows  more 
rapidly, — that  it  maybe  inserted  in  any  part  of  the  trunk  or 
limb  of  the  tree,  without  amputating  or  otherwise  injuring 
it,  and  where  the  other  mode  cannot  be  easily  performed. 
If  it  take,  the  necessary  pruning  may  be  made  at  any  sub- 
sequent period,  and  if  it  fail,  the  wound  in  the  bark  is  soon 
closed,  the  tree  is  not  disfigured,  neither  is  it  retarded  in 
its  growth,  nor  is  the  quantity  of  its  fruit,  if  it  be  in  bearing, 
diminished.  Thus  it  may  be  said  to  have  all  the  advan- 
tages of  budding,  with  the  additional  one  of  producing  the 
new  fruit  certainly  one,  and  probably  two  or  three  years 
sooner , and  further,  it  may  be  successfully  performed  at 
any  season  of  the  year  while  the  sap  is  in  motion,  and  the 
scions  taken  from  the  growth  of  the  same  or  of  the  preced- 
ing year.  It  will  be  found,  too,  that  the  stock  is  less 
injured,  heals  more  readily  and  effectually,  than  when  split, 
as  in  the  ordinary  mode  of  cleft-grafting.  All  the  branches 
of  a tree  may  be  removed  clean  to  the  trunk,  and  new  ones 
produced,  and  any  shape  or  form  given  to  the  tree  by  the 
13^ 


150 


GRAFTING. 


insertion  of  scions  at  such  places  as  you  please.  And  I am 
certain  that  they  adhere  more  firmly,  and  are  less  liable  to 
injury  from  rain  or  violent  winds,  than  those  inserted  in  a 
different  manner ; and,  if  properly  inserted,  probably  not  one 
in  fifty  will  fail. 

“ On  one  tree,  to  which  I gave  an  entire  new  top  last  year, 
and  which  had  never  before  blossomed,  several  fine  apples 
were  produced  and  ripened  in  perfection,  although  the 
scions  blossomed  about  one  month  later  than  the  parent 
tree.  I ought,  perhaps,  to  add,  that  one  cause  of  the  success 
and  extraordinary  growth  of  some  of  the  scions  I have 
inserted  in  this  way  is  doubtless  the  severe  pruning  I have 
given  the  trees  about  the  time  they  were  engrafted ; and 
it  may  be  proper  to  state,  that  I have  experimented  only 
upon  apple-trees,  although  I am  aware  of  no  reason  why 
this  mode  should  not  answer  equally  well  on  most  other 
kinds  of  fruit-trees,  where  budding  and  grafting  could  be 
successfully  performed.  I have  sent  you  by  the  packet  a 
specimen  of  the  new  mode  of  engrafting,  which  is  indeed 
of  very  extraordinary  growth ; the  scion  was  inserted  the 
6th  of  September,  1824,  being  the  growth  of  the  same  year : 
the  leaves  of  that  season  died  and  dropped  off,  new  ones 
were  disclosed,  and  new  buds  formed  the  same  autumn, 
and  the  two  branches  are  the  entire  growth  of  last  year, 
and  of  the  following  dimensions,  namely;  main  branch, 
five  and  a half  feet  in  length ; secondary,  four  feet  and  a 
half;  circumference  of  main  branch  at  the  base,  2|^  inches; 
the  other  somewhat  less.  I have  taken  off  some  of  the 
wood  of  the  tree  in  the  bark,  of  which  the  scion  was  in- 
serted, in  order  that  you  may  perceive  how  firmly  and  per- 
fectly it  has  united  with  the  main  stock,  which  was  a scrub 
apple-tree,  and  in  which  two  or  three  scions  were  likewise 
inserted  in  the  ordinary  mode,  whose  growth,  I think,  is  less 
tlian  one  half  of  the  one  sent  you,  engrafted  in  the  new 
way.” 

Future  treatment, — In  a month  after  grafting,  it  may  be 
ascertained  whether  the  scion  has  united  with  the  stock,  by 
observing  the  progress  of  its  buds  ; but,  in  general,  it  is  not 
safe  to  remove  the  clay  for  three  months  or  more,  till  the 
graft  be  completely  cicatrized.  The  clay  may  generally  be 
taken  off  in  July  or  August,  and  at  the  same  time  the  liga- 
tures loosened,  where  the  scion  seems  to  require  more  room 
to  expand;  a few  weeks  afterwards,  when  the  parts  have 
been  thus  partially  inured  to  the  air,  and  when  there  is  no 
VI  br  ’'vmds,  the  whole  of 


GllEEN-HOUSE. 


151 


the  ligatures  may  be  removed.  If  the  stock  was  not  short- 
ened down  close  to  the  graft,  or  junction  of  tlie  scion  with 
the  stock,  at  the  time  of  the  operation,  it  may  be  done 
now,  or  as  soon  as  the  ligatures  can  be  entirely  dispensed 
with.  In  particular  cases,  a ligature  round  the  graft,  or  a 
stake  or  other  prop,  for  the  shoots  of  the  scion,  may  be 
necessary  for  a year  to  come,  to  protect  against  winds ; or 
a bandage  of  moss  kept  over  the  graft,  to  preserve  moisture, 
and  encourage  the  expansion  of  the  parts,  and  complete  the 
filling  up  of  the  wound. — Loudon, 

Effects  of  grafting, — The  nature  of  the  fruit  is,  to  a cer- 
tain extent,  affected  by  the  nature  of  the  stock.  Miller 
says  decidedly,  that  crab-stocks  cause  apples  to  be  firm- 
er, to  keep  longer,  and  to  have  a sharper  flavour ; and  he 
is  equally  confident,  that,  if  the  breaking  pears  be  grafted 
on  quince  stocks,  the  fruit  is  rendered  gritty  or  stony, 
while  the  melting  pears  are  much  improved  by  such  stocks. 
This,  according  to  Neill,  is  scarcely  to  be  considered  as 
inconsistent  with  Lord  Bacon’s  doctrine,  ‘ that  the  scion 
overruleth  the  graft  quite,  the  stock  being  passive  only 
which,  as  a general  proposition,  remains  true ; it  being  evi- 
dent, that  the  scion,  bud,  or  inarched  shoot,  is  endowed 
with  the  power  of  drawing  or  forming  from  the  stock  that 
peculiar  kind  of  nourishment  which  is  adapted  to  its  na- 
ture, and  that  the  specific  characters  of  the  engrafted  plant 
remain  unchanged,  although  its  qualities  may  be  partially 
affected.” — Ed,  Encyc,  art.  Horticulture, 

GREEN-HOUSE. — A green-house  is  a building  de- 
signed to  protect,  during  winter,  such  exotic  plants,  shrubs, 
and  trees,  as  will  bear  being  exposed  to  the  open  air 
during  summer,  but  are  too  tender  for  such  exposure  in 
winter. 

J.  W.  Watkins,  Esq.  of  New  York,  gives  the  following 
plan  for  the  construction  of  a green-house,  in  the  Trans,  m 
the  Agric,  Soc,  of  the  above  state  : — 

“ The  building  should  be  sunk  in  the  earth  from  two  to 
four  feet,  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  house,  and  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  soil ; as  clay  retains  moisture, 
and  of  consequence  produces  damps,  in  such  ground  it 
should  not  be  so  deep.  The  height  should  not  exceed 
twelve  feet  from  the  exterior  ground,  by  which  it  will 
be  less  exposed  to  high  winds.  The  width  should  not 
exceed  sixteen  or  eighteen  feet,  as  the  sun’s  rays  are,  at 
that  distance  from  the  glass,  very  feeble.  A south  front  is 


152 


GREEN-HOUSE. 


taken  of  glazing  as  much  of  the  eastern  end  as  possible, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  morning  sun.  The  front  should  de- 
cline northward  from  a perpendicular  with  the  horizon,  so 
as  the  angle  made  thereby  with  the  horizon  will,  at  noon- 
day in  w inter,  bring  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  strike  the  glass  at 
right  angles,  and  the  roof  should  descend  the  opposite  side 
without  a break.  By  this  position  of  the  roof  and  glass,  the 
rays  of  the  sun  are  throwm  upon  every  part  of  the  inside  of 
the  house,  and  the  whole  becomes  heated  thereby ; more  of 
the  rays  are  also  introduced  into  the  building,  and  when  the 
sun  produces  most  heat  during  the  day,  there  is  no  reflec- 
tion of  its  rays,  and  at  other  parts  of  the  day,  the  reflecting 
angle,  being  obtuse,  does  not  powerfully  cast  off  the  rays. 
The  inside  of  the  rafters  of  the  roof  should  be  lined  wuth 
boards,  and  the  space  betw  een  that  and  the  roof  filled  with 
a mixture  of  straw,  sand,  and  clay,  made  into  mortar; 
boards  should  be  used  in  preference  to  shingles,  as,  making 
fewer  breaks  in  the  roof,  less  opportunity  is  given  for  the 
admission  of  cold  air.  The  residue  of  the  building  may 
be  of  stone  or  brick  work,  or  a frame  building  filled  in 
with  bricks,  and  no  flooring  of  any  kind  upon  the  ground. 
Shutters  on  the  outside  are  sufficient ; and  it  is  preferable  to 
have  them  hung  on  hinges,  as  the  least  troublesome,  to  the 
common  practice  of  sliding  ones  : they  should  be  made  to 
fold  into  the  spaces  between  the  windows. 

Before  putting  the  plants  into  the  house,  the  bottom 
should  be  covered  with  bark  from  a tan-Vat,  about  a foot 
deep,  according  to  the  depth  the  building  is  sunk  in  the 
earth. 

The  advantages  proposed  by  this  method  of  constructing 
are,  the  lessening  the  expense  of  building;  that,  the  heat  of 
the  sun  being  sufficient  to  warm  the  house,  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  warming  it  by  a stove  is  avoided,  which  unless 
very- carefully  attended,  the  plants  may  be  injured  by  too 
much  heat,  and  are  always  by  the  smoke  that  unavoidably 
makes  its  way  out  of  the  pipes.  It  would  be  proper,  nev- 
ertheless, to  make  arrangements  in  constructing  the  house 
for  using  a stove,  in  case  a long  succession  of  cold,  cloudy 
days,  by  obscuring  the  sun,  should  reduce  the  heat  in  the 
house  below,  that  degree  of  temperature  necessary  for  pre- 
serving the  plants,  which  is  a case  that  will  seldom  hap- 
pen, as  one  clear  day  will  warm  the  house  sufficiently  to 
admit  its  being  shut  up  for  several  days. 

Plants  in  a house  of  this  kind  require  less  water,  and  do 
not  sutler  for  the  want  of  atmospheric  air.  It  is  probable, 


HAWTHORN. 


153 


as  the  earth  is  charged  with  electric  fluids,  as  vegetable 
substances  are  known  conductors  of  it,  that  the  bark,  by  its 
fermentation,  not  only  generates  heat,  but  serves  as  a mean 
to  produce  out  of  the  earth  an  atmosphere  for  the  plants, 
suflicient,  with  such  atmospheric  air  as  will  find  admission, 
to  supply  the  quantity  exhausted  by  the  daily  rarefaction 
occasioned  by  the  sun’s  heat. 

‘‘  A green-house  has  been  used  upon  this  construction  in 
this  state,  without  having  had  the  least  occasion  of  being 
heated  by  fire.  The  plants  in  the  spring  were  remarkably 
thrifty ; tropical  fruit  ripened  in  it  during  the  winter,  and 
young  fruit  formed  on  the  trees.  It  required  no  other  care, 
than  now  and  then  watering  the  plants,  and  shutting  the 
windows  as  soon  as  the  sun  left  them.” 

With  respect  to  the  management  of  plants  in  green- 
houses, it  is  recommended  occasionally  to  open  the  mould 
in  which  they  are  set,  to  scatter  a little  fresh  earth  on  the 
pots,  and  over  this  to  lay  a little  dung.  It  will  also  be  ad- 
visable to  water  them  when  the  leaves  begin  to  curl  or 
wither,  and  to  pluck  off  such  as  are  decayed;  but  these 
operations  should  not  be  too  frequently  repeated. 

‘‘  Some  people,”  says  McMahon,  “ are  desirous  of  keep- 
ing out  their  plants  as  long  as  possible  ; this  is  very  right, 
but  it  ought  not  to  be  extended  to  too  hazardous  aperiod ; for 
one  night’s  frost  would  cause  the  leaves  to  lose  their  fine 
green  colour,  which  perhaps  might  not  be  restored  during 
the  whole  winter ; and,  if  any  way  severe,  serious  injury 
might  be  sustained. 

‘‘  If  the  windows  and  doors  are  kept  open  day  and  night, 
as  long  as  there  is  safety  in  so  doing,  the  plants  will  be 
nearly  as  well  off  as  in  the  open  air,  and  no  danger  is  en- 
countered : the  mere  difference  of  five  or  six  days  in  the 
taking  in  of  the  plants  will  ensure  safety  ; but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  not  right  to  be  too  precipitate  in  housing  them, 
before  the  common  appearance  of  the  weather  indicates 
the  necessity.” 

HAWTHORN. — Cratcegus. — There  are  a great  many 
species  of  this  genus  of  plants,  (see  Hedge,)  of  which  the 
oxycantha^  or  English  hawthorn,  as  it  is  commonly  named 
in  the  United  States,  is  most  generally  cultivated  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  hedges.  The  manner  of  raising  the 
thorn  quicks  is  as  follows  : — 

Collect  your  seeds  in  autumn,  mix  them  with  equal 
quantities  of  light,  sandy  earth,  and  lay  them  in  that  state  on 
the  surface  of  a dry  spot  of  ground  in  your  best  enclosed 


154 


HAWTHORN. 


garden,  where  they  cannot  be  disturbed  by  hogs,  &c. ; form 
this  mixture  into  a narrow,  sloping  ridge,  tapering  to  the 
top,  and  cover  it  with  light,  loose  earth,  two  inches  thick 
all  over;  the  April  following,  turn  this,  ridge,  mixing  the 
wdiole  together,  and  form  it  again  the  same  way,  covering 
in  like  manner  as  before,  with  tw^o  inches  deep  of  light, 
loose  earth  ; repeat  this  again  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August,  by  which  the  seeds  in  every  part  will  be  equally 
prepared  for  vegetation.  A trench  must  be  cut  round  this 
ridge,  to  prevent  any  water  from  lodging  about  the  seeds ; 
for  this  would  rot  many  and  injure  others,  especially  in  the 
second  winter,  when  the  stones  would  be  losing  their  ce- 
menting quality,  and  begin  to  open ; for  until  this  is  effect- 
ed the  kernels  cannot  vegetate.  Hence  the  necessity  and 
great  advantage  of  not  burying  the  stones  in  the  earth,  as 
is  injudiciously  practised  by  many. 

There  is  not  the  least  danger  to  be  apprehended  from 
frost  injuring  the  seeds,  whilst  so  much  exposed  to  it  in  those 
ridges ; however,  it  will  not  be  amiss  to  strew^  a light  cov- 
ering of  long  litter  over  them  on  the  approach  of  wdnter ; 
which  will  keep  them  dry,  and  in  a better  state  for  sowing 
when  the  season  arrives. 

“Your  haws  being  prepared  as  above,  make  ready  a 
piece  of  good  rich  ground,  neither  upon  an  elevated  situa- 
tion, nor  too  low ; in  the  former  the  summer  drought  would 
be  unfriendly,  and  in  the  latter  they  would  be  subject  to 
mildew : this  must  be  done  as  early  in  the  spring  as  you 
can  get  the  ground  to  work  freely,  and  pulverize  w^h  ^ for 
the  haws  begin  to  throw  out  roots  at  a very  ea»*!|  period ; 
and  if  not  sown  at  this  time,  or  before,  a grea^  ,iumber  of 
these  roots  will  be  broken  off  in  the  act  of  sowing,  and 
thereby  totally  lost ; the  others  which  escape  this  accident, 
having  their  radicles  extended  on  the  surface,  penetrate  the 
earth  at  the  extreme  points  of  those  roots,  forming  right 
angles  wuth  the  parts  already  produced,  by  which  means 
they  can  never  drive  up  the  seed  leaves  with  as  much 
vigour  as  if  the  radicles  descended  immediately  in  a per- 
pendicular direction  from  the  stones  of  the  fruit ; hence 
the  necessity  of  early  sowung. 

“ The  ground,  how^ever,  must  not  be  wrought  while  wet, 
or  at  least  the  seeds  should  not  be  covered  with  wet  or 
heavy  earth,  nor  too  deep,  for  if  the  surface  should  cake, 
or  become  stiff  in  consequence  of  dry  weather  ensuing, 
fev/  of  these  young  plants,  having  broad  seed  leaves,  could 
bear  up  through  it;  therefore,  you  must  be  very  cautious 


HAWTHORN. 


155 


in  that  point,  and  if  the  earth  of  your  bed  is  not  light  and 
dry  enough  for  this  purpose,  you  must  carry  as  much 
as  will  cover  the  seeds  from  some  dry  compost  heap,  or 
some  quarter  of  the  garden,  where  it  can  be  found  in  a 
suitable  condition. 

‘‘  On  examining  your  haws,  if  you  find  the  earth  in 
which  they  are  mixed  any  way  clogged  with  too  much 
moisture,  so  that  the  parts  and  seeds  would  not  separate 
freely  in  the  act  of  sowing ; mix  therewith  a sufficient 
quantity  of  slaked  lime,  or  wood-ashes,  to  accomplish  that 
end. 

‘‘  Having  every  thing  in  readiness,  and  your  ground  well 
dug,  and  raked  effectually  as  you  proceeded  in  the  digging^  still 
presuming  that  it  is  in  the  best  possible  state  of  prepara- 
tion, lay  it  out  into  four  feet  wide  beds,  leaving  twelve  or 
fourteen  inches  of  an  alley  between  each,  and  with  the 
back  of  the  rake  push  off  into  these  alleys  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  of  the  fine  raked  surface  of  the  beds, 
one  half  of  each  bed  to  the  one  side,  and  the  other  to  the 
opposite  ; this  done,  sow  your  haws  thereon,  earth  and  all, 
as  they  had  lain,  so  thick  that  you  may  expect  a thousand 
plants  at  least,  after  every  reasonable  allowance  for  faulty 
or  imperfect  seeds,  (there  being  many  of  these,)  on  every 
three  or  four  yards  of  your  beds  ; — I have  often  had  that 
number  on  as  many  feet; — then  with  a spade  or  shovel  cast 
the  earth  out  of  the  alleys  evenly  over  the  beds,  covering 
the  seeds  not  more  than  three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and 
not  more  than  half  an  inch,  if  the  earth  be  any  w^ay  stiff ; 
after  which  rake  the  tops  of  the  beds  very  lightly^  taking 
care  not  to  disturb  the  seeds,  in  order  to  take  off  the  lumps, 
and  to  give  a neat  appearance  to  the  work.” — McMahon. 
If  any  stiffness  of  the  ground  is  perceived,  the  beds  should 
have  frequent  and  gentle  waterings  ; and  great  care  will  be 
necessary  to  keep  the  beds  free  from  weeds  from  the  mo- 
ment the  plants  appear  above  ground  till  they  are  fit  to  be 
planted  in  hedge-rows,  and  have  arrived  at  such  a size  that 
weeds  cannot  materially  injure  them. 

Mr.  Kirk,  of  Brandywine,  has  been  successful  in  making 
the  seeds  of  the  American  thorn  vegetate,  by  washing  them 
clean,  putting  them  in  hot  water  to  swell  them,  and  ex 
posing  the  water  in  which  they  were  immersed  to  be 
frozen  and  thawed  several  times.  Dr.  Mease,  of  Philadel- 
phia, saysy  ‘‘  The  haws  of  the  Washington  thorn,  Cratcegus 
cordata^  require  to  be  buried  one  winter  before  they  sprout, 
and  they  should  be  put  into  the  ground  the  same  autumn 


156  HEArUNG  DOWN  FRUIT-TREES. HEDGES. 

they  are  taken  off  the  tree;  the  pulp  which  surrounds 
them*^  having  been  previously  rubbed  off  and  the  stone 
washed.  The  usual  way  is  to  put  them  in  a box  of  sand, 
and  to  stand  it  under  the  eaves  of  a house,  to  receive  the 
dropping  of  water  from  it,  and  by  the  spring  they  wDl  be 
open  and  ready  for  planting.” — Mem,  Phil,  Agr,  Soc.  vol. 
iff.  p.  439.  See  further^  Hedges. 

Insects. — A great  enemy  to  the  hawthorn  is  the  horer^ 
(saperda  bivitataj)  the  same  which  infests  apple-trees,  &c.  ; 
and  we  know  of  no  method  of  guarding  against  its  ravages. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  this  insect  has  never  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  the  interior  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
to  be  found  only  within  the  distance  of  a few  miles  from 
the  sea  shore. 

HEADING  DOWN  FRUIT-TREES.— When  any 
fruit-trees  have  begun  to  decline,  and  are  thin  of  young 
wood,  you  may  often  restore  them  by  heading  down  such 
limbs  as  are  in  the  worst  state  to  those  parts  where  young 
shoots  appear,  and  close  to  the  most  vigorous ; but  this 
should  not  be  done,  generally,  the  same  season,  lest  it  give 
such  a sudden  check  to  the  sap  as  totally  to  destroy  the 
tree.  But  if  every  other  branch  all  over  the  tree  were 
headed  at  proper  lengths,  each  close  to  some  young  shoot, 
new,  healthy  wood  would  be  produced,  which  would  soon 
come  into  bearing.  The  next  spring  after  the  first  branch- 
es were  headed,  the  remaining  old  branches  may  be  cut  out, 
as  directed  above ; after  which  the  head  of  the  tree  will 
soon  be  filled  with  bearing  wood,  which  may  afterwards  be 
pruned  as  directed  for  other  trees.” — McMahon, 

HEDGES. — A great  variety  of  shrubs  and  trees  have 
been  made  use  of  for  hedges,  among  which  are  various 
kinds  of  thorns,  such  as  the  Cratcegus  oxijacanthay  or  com- 
mon European  hawthorn,  or  white  thorn  ; the  Cratagus 
coccinea^  or  great  American  hawthorn ; the  Cratcegus  crus~ 
galli^  or  cockspur  hawthorn;  the  Cratcegus  cordata^  or 
American  hedge  thorn  ; crab  and  apple-treess,  horn-beam, 
beech,  honey-locust,  buckthorn,  holly,  white  mulberry,  ju- 
niper, red  cedar,  &c.  &c. 

Mr.  Quincy,  of  Massachusetts,  has  given  a statement  of 
his  mode  ol  making  hedges  of  the  Crafiifgus  cordata^  which 
was  published  in  ae  third  volume  of  the  Mass.  Agr.  Rep. 
p.  27.  The  seed:ffig  thorns  (ten  thousand)  were  obtained 
from  the  nursery  of  Thomas  Main,  near  Georgetown,  D.  C., 
and  planted  m a hedge-course  of  two  hundred  and  fifty-five 
rods,  so  far  as  was  necessary  to  fill  that  extent  in  one  line^ 


HEDGES. 


157 


each  plant  being  five  inches  apart.  The  residue  were 
planted  in  a nursery,  for  the  purpose  of  filling  vacancies. 

The  hedge-course  was  made  in  sandy  land,  ploughed  of 
the  width  of  four  feet,  and  manured  and  prepared  precisely  as 
for  Indian  corn ; except,  only,  that,  after  ploughing,  the  cen- 
tre, for  two  feet  wide,  was  turned  over  with  the  spade,  and 
the  hedge  planted  without  further  preparation.  Mr.  Quin- 
cy advises  to  the  following  course  : — Plough  the  hedge- 
course  six  feet  wide.  Plant  the  whole  course  one  year  to 
potatoes.  This  pays  for  the  labour  as  much  as  other  land 
thus  planted.  Set  the  thorns  eight  inches  apart.  This  is 
near  enough  in  a country  like  this,  where  hogs  are  not  per- 
mitted to  run  at  large,  and  makes  a considerable  saving  in 
labour  as  well  as  the  cost  of  the  plants.  Keep  both  sides 
of  the  hedge  planted  with  potatoes,  during  the  whole  six 
years  that  the  hedge  is  coming  to  perfection.  The  potatoes 
will  nearly  pay  the  cost  of  the  labour.  The  manure  for  the 
potatoes  benefits  the  hedge;  and,  while  hoeing  the  pota- 
toes, keeping  the  hedge  clear  of  weeds  is  easy. 

“ To  keep  the  hedge  clear  of  weeds,  and  to  fill  up  the 
vacancies  regularly  in  the  spring  of  every  year,  with  plants 
of  the  same  age  with  those  of  the  original  hedge,  are  the 
two  essential  objects  of  attention  after  the  hedge-course  i? 
prepared,  and  the  plants  are  set.  Younger  plants  ma^ 
answer,  but  whoever  would  make  a hedge,  in  the  most 
speedy  and  perfect  manner,  ought  to  procure,  at  the  time 
of  obtaining  the  plants  for  the  original  hedge,  a sufficient 
extra  number  to  supply  all  deficiencies  likely  to  occur  dur- 
ing the  whole  time  the  hedge  is  forming ; to  be  kept  at  a 
nursery,  thriving,  if  possible,  a little  better  than  those  in  the 
hedge-course.” 

With  respect  to  the  age  at  which  plants  for  hedges  ought 
to  be  used,  Loudon  says,  “ Three  years  old  are  certainly 
the  youngest  that  should  be  transplanted,  and  if  they  are 
six  or  seven  yt^.ars  old,  so  much  the  better ; the  prevailing 
idea  that  plants  of  that  age  will  not  thrive,  if  transplanted, 
]s  totally  unfounded.”  He  likewise  recommends  assorting 
the  plants,  and  setting  those  together  which  are  nearly  of  a 
size ; because,  when  no  pains  have  been  taken  in  assort- 
ing the  plants,  and  they  are  planted  promiscuously,  great 
and  small,  strong  and  weak,  the  consequence  is,  that  the 
strongest  plants  very  soon  outgrow  such  as  are  weaker, 
and  not  only  overtop  them,  but  also  deprive  them  of  that 
nourishment  which  they  so  much  require.  As  the  hedge 
advances  in  age,  the  evil  becomes  greater;  small,  stunted 


158 


HOEING. 


plants  and  innumerable  gaps  appearing  throughout  the 
whole  line  of  the  fence,  interspersed  with  others  remarkable 
for  their  strength  and  luxuriance. 

“ This  assorting  of  hedge-plants  has  another  advantage, 
namely,  that  of  putting  it  in  the  power  of  the  person,  who 
plants  the  hedge,  to  put  down  the  large,  strong,  healthy 
plants  upon  the  poorest  parts  of  the  line  of  fence,  and  to  set 
such  as  are  smaller  and  weaker  upon  the  richer  and  more 
fertile  parts.  He  has  it  also  in  his  power,  by  a more  care- 
ful preparation  of  the  soil,  and  bestowing  a greater  propor- 
tion of  manure  on  the  places  where  the  plants  are  set,  to 
give  them  that  nourishment  and  assistance  which  they 
require,  and  which  would  very  soon  enable  them  to  form  a 
fence  equal  to  that  part  occupied  by  the  strongest  plants.” 

Hedges  may  be  of  various  kinds,  such  as  the  single  hedge 
and  ditch ; the  hedge  and  bank ; the  level  hedge,  &c. ; of 
which,  descriptions  may  be  found  in  Loudon’s  Encyclopedia 
of  Agriculture^  and  other  books  of  husbandry. 

It  is  often  found  necessary  to  plash  or  interweave  the 
branches  of  hedges.  Some  advise  to  cut  oiT  the  tops,  or 
head  them  down  to  about  three  feet,  or  three  feet  and  a 
half  from  the  ground,  when  the  plants  are  about  four  years 
old,  &c.  &c.  See  Loudoids  Encyc,  of  Agr,  ; Farmer'^s  As- 
sistant; Willichh  Dom,  Encyc,  ; Mem.  of  N.  Y.  Board  of 
Agr.  vol.  ii.  p.  161. 

A writer  in  the  Mass.  Agr.  Rep.  says,  The  best  plant 
for  hedges,  so  far  as  the  experience  of  one  of  our  cultiva- 
tors, Ezekiel  H.  Derby,  will  go,  and  he  has  tried  it  for 
many  years,  is  the  buckthorn.  It  makes  a close,  beautiful 
hedge,  and  is  not  subject  to  any  disease,  nor  the  depreda- 
tions of  any  devourer,  so  far  as  we  yet  know.”  See  art. 
Buckthorn,  p.  56. 

HOEING. — “The  ends  to  be  answered  by  hoeing  are 
chiedy  these: — 1.  To  destroy  weeds,  which  are  always 
ready  to  spring  up  in  every  soil,  and  which  would  rob  the 
cultivated  plants  of  most  of  their  food.  Scraping  the  sur- 
face, if  it  be  done  frequently,  may  answer  this  purpose  ; but 
to  destroy  the  roots  of  weeds,  deeper  hoeing  is  necessary. — 
2.  To  keep  the  soil  from  becoming  too  compact,  which 
prevents  the  roots  from  extending  themselves  freely  in 
search  of  their  food ; at  the  same  time  keeping  up  a fer- 
mentation, by  which  the  vegetable  food  is  concocted,  and 
brought  into  contact  with  the  roots.  For  this  purpose,  the 
deeper  land  is  hoed,  the  better.  But  hoeing  should  cease, 
or  be  only  superficial,  when  the  roots  are  so  far  extended 


HOUSE-llADiSH. 


150 


as  to  be  much  injured  by  hoeing.  They  will  bear  a little 
cutting  without  injury.  For  where  a root  is  cut  off,  several 
new  branches  will  come  in  its  place. — 3.  To  render  the 
soil  more  open  and  porous,  so  that  it  shall  greedily  drink  in 
the  nightly  dews,  and  that  rain  may  not  run  off,  but  readily 
soak  in  as  it  falls,  and  be  retained.  Accordingly,  the  more 
and  oftener  land  is  hoed,  the  more  moisture  it  retains,  the 
better  it  bears  drought,  and  the  more  its  plants  are  nour- 
ished.— 4.  Another  design  of  hoeing,  and  which  has  not 
been  enough  attended  to,  is,  to  nourish  plants  by  drawing 
fresh  soil  near  to  them,  the  effluvium  of  which  enters  their 
pores,  and  increases  their  growth.  At  the  same  time  the 
earthing  of  plants  makes  them  stand  more  firmly,  and  in- 
creases their  pasture  in  the  spots  where  the  roots  most 
abound  ; and  prevents  the  drying  of  the  earth  down  to  the 
roots.” — Deane. 

HORSE-RADISH. — Cochlearia  Armoracia. — The  fol- 
lowing instructions  for  cultivating  horse-radish  are  by 
Knight,  a celebrated  English  horticulturist : — Horse-rad- 
ish thrives  best  in  deep,  soft,  sandy  loam,  that  is  not  very 
dry  in  summer,  nor  inundated  in  winter;  the  situation  must 
be  open.  During  winter,  [or  in  autumn,]  trench  the  ground 
three  feet  deep  ; and  in  the  following  February  [as  soon  as 
frost  will  permit  in  this  country]  procure  your  sets,  in  the 
choice  of  which  take  the  strongest  crowns,  or  leading  buds, 
from  old  plants,  cutting  them  about  two  inches  long.  Mark 
out  the  ground  in  four  feet  beds,  and  one  foot  alleys ; then 
take  from  the  first  bed  nine  inches  of  the  top  soil,  laying  it 
upon  the  adjoining  bed ; after  which  take  out  an  opening 
at  one  end  of  the  bed,  in  the  common  way  of  trenching, 
fifteen  inches  deep  from  the  present  surface ; then  level  the 
bottom,  after  which  plant  a row  of  sets  across  the  bed  at 
nine  inches  apart,  each  way,  Avith  their  crowns  upright; 
afterAvards  dig  the  next  trench  the  same  width  and  depth, 
turning  the  earth  into  the  first  trench,  over  the  roAv  of  sets ; 
thus  proceeding,  trench  after  trench,  to  the  end.  Where 
more  than  the  produce  of  one  bed  is  required  for  the  supply 
of  the  family  for  tAvelve  months,  the  third  bed  is  next  to  be 
planted,  Avhich  treat  as  directed  for  the  first,  only  observing 
to  lay  the  earth  on  the  fourth,  and  so  on  to  any  number  of 
beds.  Upon  every  alternate  bed,  which  is  not  planted,  a 
dwarf  annual  crop  may  be  grown.  The  plants  must  be  kept 
clear  from  Aveeds  during  summer ; and  as  soon  as  the 
leaves  decay  in  autumn,  let  them  be  carefully  raked  off 
with  a Avooden-toothed  rake  ; in  the  folloAving  February, 


160 


HORSE-RADISH. 


[or  soon  as  frost  will  permit,]  eighteen  inches  of  the 
earth  of  the  unplanted  bed  must  be  laid,  as  light  as  possible, 
and  equally,  over  the  beds  that  are  planted ; then  trench 
and  plant  the  vacant  beds  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as 
before  directed.  The  following  autumn,  the  first-planted 
horse-radish  may  be  taken  up,  by  opening  a trench  at  one 
end  of  the  bed,  to  the  bottom  of  the  roots,  so  that  the  sticks 
or  roots  of  horse-radish  may  be  taken  up  entire  and  sound, 
which,  for  size  and  quality,  will  be  such  as  have  not  gen- 
erally been  seen.  The  following  February,  [March  or 
April,]  the  one  year  old  crop  will  require  additional  earth, 
as  before  directed,  which  must  of  course  be  taken  from 
those  beds,  which  are  now  vacant,  which  when  done,  if 
the  ground  appears  poor,  or  unlikely  to  produce  another 
vigorous  crop,  they  must  have  a coat  of  manure.” — Hort, 
Trans,  i.  207. 

‘‘  Judd  has  also  written  on  the  culture  of  horse-radish, 
{Hort.  Trans,  v.  302,)  and  his  practice,  though  very  differ- 
ent from  Knight’s,  is  also  excellent,  and  perhaps  prefer- 
able. Knight  takes  strong  buds  from  old  plants,  while 
Judd  takes  about  three  inches  of  the  top  part  of  each  stick 
or  root,  and  then  cuts  clean  off  about  a quarter  of  an  inch 
af  this  piece  under  the  crown,  so  as  to  leave  no  appearance 
of  a green  bud.  Judd  trenches  only  two  feet  deep,  and,  if 
he  applies  manure,  puts  it  in  the  very  bottom  of  the  trench  ; 
‘ for,  if  not  so  done,  the  horse-radish,  which  always  puts  out 
some  side  roots,  would  send  out  such  large  side  roots  from 
the  main  root,  in  search  of  the  dung  lying  contiguous,  as 
materially  to  injure  the  crop.  In  planting,  holes  are  made 
eighteen  inches  apart  every  way,  and  sixteen  or  eighteen 
inches  deep.  The  root-cuttings  are  let  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  holes,  which  are  afterwards  filled  up  with  fine  sifted 
cinder-dust,  and  the  surface  of  the  bed  is  then  raked  over. 
The  season  of  planting  is  the  latter  part  of  March.’  The 
essential  difference  between  Knight’s  plan  and  Judd’s  is, 
that  the  former  produces  his  root  from  the  root-end  of  the 
cutting  downwards,  and  the  latter  from  the  bud-end  up- 
wards : hence  the  one  plants  near  the  surface,  and  the 
ether  near  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  Judd’s  mode  seems 
more  certain  of  producing  one  entire  strong  root  than 
Knight’s.” — Loudon. 

Use. — The  root,  when  scraped  into  shreds,  is  much  used 
at  the  table  as  a condiment  for  fish,  roast  beef,  &c.  If  in- 
tended for  immediate  use,  it  should,  says  Willich’s  Do- 
mestic Encyclopedia,  ^^be  dug  out  of  the  ground /rc5^,  only 


XIOT-BEI). 


JO’l 


from  October  to  Marcli ; or  be  gathered  in  the  spring ; then 
dried,  reduced  to  powder,  and  preserved  in  bottles  closely 
stopped  for  occasional  use ; when  it  should  be  previously 
moistened  with  spring  water.  When  steeped  and  digested 
in  vinegar  during  a fortnight,  this  root  is  said  effectually  to 
remove  freckles  in  the  face.”  It  is  likewise  recommended 
in  cases  of  dropsy,  scurvy,  rheumatism,  palsy,  &c. — Phillips* 
History  of  Vegetables** — New  England  Farmer^  vol.  v.  pp. 
269,  270. 

HOT-BED. — A hot-bed,  in  gardening,  is  a small  bed  or 
mound  of  earth,  composed  of  certain  substances,  which,  by 
their  fermentation,  give  warmth  to  vegetables  or  seeds,  set 
or  sowed  in  them,  and  thus  hasten  their  growth.  The  fer- 
menting substances  used  for  forming  hot- beds  are,  stable 
litter  or  dung,  in  a recent  or  fresh  state,  tanners’  bark,  leaves 
of  trees,  grass,  and  the  herbaceous  parts  of  plants  generally. 

Stable  dung  is  in  the  most  general  use  for  forming  hot- 
beds, which  are  masses  of  this  dung  after  it  has  undergone 
its  most  violent  fermentation.  These  masses  are  generally 
in  the  form  of  solid  parallelograms,  of  magnitude  propor- 
tioned to  the  frames  which  are  to  be  placed  on  them,  the 
degree  of  heat  required,  and  the  season  of  the  year  in  which 
they  are  formed. 

“ Tanners’  bark  is  only  preferred  to  dung  because  the 
substance,  which  undergoes  the  process  of  putrid  fermenta- 
tion, requires  longer  time  to  decay.  Hence  it  is  found  use- 
ful in  the  bark-pits  of  hot-houses,  as  requiring  to  be  sel- 
domer  removed  or  renewed  than  dung,  or  any  other  fer- 
mentable substance,  that  can  be  procured  in  equal  quantity. 

‘‘  Leaves,  and  especially  oak  leaves,  come  the  nearest  to 
bark,  and  have  the  additional  advantage,  that,  when  per- 
fectly rotten,  like  dung,  they  form  a rich  mould,  or  excel- 
lent manure  ; whereas,  rotten  tanners’  bark  is  found  rather 
injurious  than  useful  to  vegetation,  unless  well  mixed  v/ith 
lime  and  earth. 

Preparation  of  manures, — The  object  of  preparation  in 
these  three  substances  being  to  get  rid  of  violent  heat, 
whidi  is  produced  when  the  fermentation  is  most  powerful, 
it  is  obvious,  that  preparation  must  consist  in  facilitating  the 
process.  For  this  purpose,  a certain  degree  of  moisture  and 
air  in  the  fermenting  bodies  is  requisite;  and  lienee  the 
business  of  the  gardener  is,  to  turn  them  over  frequently, 
and  apply  water  when  the  process  appears  impeded  for 
want  of  it,  and  exclude  rain  w^hen  it  seems  chilled  and  ini- 
14 


1G2 


KOT-BED. 


peded  by  too  much  water.  Recent  stable  dung  generally 
requires  to  lie  a month  in  ridges  or  beds,  and  be  turned 
over  in  that  time  thrice,  before  it  is  fit  for  cucumber  beds 
of  the  common  construction.  But  for  linings,  or  for  frames 
with  moveable  bottoms,  three  weeks,  a fortnight,  or  less, 
will  suffice  ; or  no  time  at  all  need  be  given,  but  the  dung 
formed  at  once  into  linings.  Tan  and  leaves,  in  general, 
require  a month ; but  much  depends  on  the  state  of  the 
weather,  and  the  season  of  the  year.  Fermentation  is 
always  most  rapid  in  summer ; and  if  the  materials  are 
spread  abroad  during  frost,  it  is  totally  impeded. 

The  formation  of  the  dung-beds  is  effected  by  first  mark- 
ing out  the  dimensions  of  the  plan,  which  should  be  six 
inches  wider  on  all  sides  than  that  of  the  frame  to  be  placed 
over  it ; and  then,  by  successive  layers  of  dung,  laid  on  by 
a fork,  raising  it  to  the  desired  height,  pressing  it  gently 
and  equally  throughout.  In  general,  such  beds  are  formed 
on  a level  surface  ; but  Knight’s  mode  is,  to  form  a surface 
of  earth  as  a basis,  which  shall  incline  to  the  horizon,  to 
the  extent  of  fifteen  degrees  : on  this  he  forms  the  dung-bed 
to  the  same  inclination  ; and,  finally,  the  frame,  when 
placed  on  such  a bed,  if,  as  is  usual,  it  be  deepest  behind, 
will  present  its  glass  at  an  angle  of  twenty  degrees,  instead 
of  six  or  eight ; which  is,  undoubtedly,  of  great  advantage  in 
the  winter  season.  This  seems  a very  desirable  improve- 
ment, where  light  is  an  object,  which  it  must  be  in  a high 
degree  in  the  case  of  the  culture  of  cucumbers  and  melons, 
as  well  as  in  forcing  flowers. 

Ashes  are  often  mixed  with  the  dung  of  hot-beds,  and 
are  supposed  to  promote  the  steadiness  and  duration  of  their 
heat,  and  at  first  to  revive  it  if  somewhat  decayed.  Tan 
and  leaves  have  been  used  for  the  same  purpose  ; and  it  is 
generally  found,  that  about  one  third  of  tan  and  two  thirds 
of  dung  will  form  a more  durable  and  less  violent  heat 
than  a bed  wholly  of  dung.  The  heat  of  dung-beds  is  re- 
vived by  linings  or  collateral  and  surrounding  walls  or 
banks  of  fresh  dung,  the  old  dung  of  the  bed  being  previ- 
ously cut  down  close  to  the  frame.  These  linings,  as  before 
observed,  require  less  preparation  than  the  dung  for  the 
beds.  The  dung-bed,  being  formed,  and  having  stood  two 
or  three  days,  with  the  frame  and  lights  placed  over  it  to 
protect  it  from  rain,  is  next  to  be  covered  with  earth  of 
quality,  and  in  quantity,  according  to  the  purpose  to  which 
it  is  to  be  applied.  In  severe  weather,  the  sides  of  the 


hot-housl:. — HYSSOP. 


1G3 


bed  arc  often  protected  by  bundles  of  straw  or  fagots, 
which  tend  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  heat.” — Enajc.  of 
Gardening. 

HOT-HOUSE. — A hot-house  is  a building  intended 
to  form  a habitation  for  vegetables ; either  for  such  exotic 
plants  as  will  not  grow  in  the  open  air  of  the  country 
where  the  building  is  erected,  or  for  such  indigenous  and 
acclimated  plants  as  it  is  desired  to  force  or  excite  into 
a state  of  vegetation,  or  accelerate  their  maturation  at  an 
extraordinary  season. 

‘‘  Such  heat  as  is  required,  in  addition  to  that  of  the  sun, 
is  most  generally  produced  by  the  ignition  of  carbonaceous 
materials,  which  heat  the  air  of  the  house,  either  directly, 
when  hot  embers  of  wood  are  left  in  a furnace  or  stove, 
placed  within  the  house,  as  in  Sweden  or  Russia ; mediate- 
ly, as  when  smoke  and  heated  air,  from  or  passing  through 
ignited  fuel,  is  made  to  circulate  in  flues;  or  indirectly,  when 
ignited  fuel  is  applied  to  boil  water,  and  the  hot  vapour,  or 
water  itself,  is  impelled  through  tubes  of  metal  or  other 
conductors,  and  either  to  heat  the  air  of  the  house  at  once, 
as  in  most  cases,  or  to  heat  masses  of  brick-work,  sand, 
gravel,  rubble,  or  earth,  tan,  or  even  water,  (Hart.  Trans. 
vol.  hi.,)  which  materials  may  afterwards  give  out  the  heat 
so  acquired  slowly  to  the  atmosphere  of  the  house.  But 
heat  is  also  occasionally  supplied  from  fermenting  vegeta- 
ble substances,  as  dung,  tan,  leaves,  weeds,  &c.,  applied 
either  beneath  or  around  the  whole  or  a part  of  the  house, 
or  placed  in  a body  within  it.” — Encyc.  of  Gardening. 

Steam  aflbrds  the  most  simple  and  effectual  mode  of 
heating  hot-houses,  and  indeed  large  bodies  of  air  in  any 
building,  and  is  the  most  convenient  carrier  of  heat,  which 
human  ingenuity  has  ever  discovered  or  employed. — See 
Encyc.  of  Gardening.^  from  p.  310  to  pp.  333,  502,  &c. 

HYSSOP. — Hyssopus  officinalis. — This  is  a hardy  plant, 
a native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  grows  to  the  height 
of  about  eighteen  inches. 

Propagation  and  culture. — “ It  is  raised  by  slips  and  cut- 
tings of  the  branches,  and  by  slips  of  the  root  and  top 
together.  It  likes  a dry  and  sandy  soil.  When  it  is  propa- 
gated by  seed,  sow  in  March  or  April  a small  portion, 
either  broad-cast  and  raked  in,  or  in  small  drills  six  inches 
apart.  The  plants  may  mostly  be  transplanted  into  final 
beds  in  June  or  July,  nine  inches  apart,  or  some  may  be 
planted  as  an  edging;  or  you  may  also  sow  some  seed  for 
‘’1  remain  where  sown:  Give  the  edgings  occa- 


164 


INARCHING. INDIAN  CORN. 


sionally  trimming  in  their  established  growth ; cutting  away 
also  any  decayed  flower-spikes  in  autumn.  You  ip.?y  take 
rooted  oflsets  from  established  plants  in  March,  April,  Au- 
gust or  September,  cuttings  from  the  stalks  in  April  and 
May;  also  rootless  slips  of  the  young  shoots  in  June  or 
July.  After  May,  shade  for  a time,  or  plant  in  a shady  bor- 
der. If  for  culinary  purposes,  the  distance  from  plant  to 
plant  may  be  nine  inches  ; in  the  physic  garden,  eighteen 
inches  or  two  feet.  Water  at  planting,  and  twice  or  thrice 
a week  in  dry  weather  till  rooted.” — Abercrombie. 

Use. — The  leaves  and  young  shoots  are  occasionally  used 
as  a pot-herb,  and  the  leafy  tops  and  flower-spikes  are  cut, 
dried,  and  preserved  for  medicmal  purposes.  They  are 
particularly  recommended  in  humoral  asthmas,  coughs,  and 
other  disorders  of  the  breast  and  lungs. 

INARCHING.— This  method  of  engrafting  is  used^ 
when  the  stock  intended  to  graft  on,  and  the  tree  from 
which  the  graft  is  taken,  stand  so  near  (or  can  be  brought 
so  near)  that  they  may  be  joined  together.  The  method 
of  performing  the  operation  is  as  follows  : — 

Take  the  branch  you  would  inarch,  and,  having  fitted  it 
to  that  part  of  the  stock  where  you  intend  to  join  it,  pare 
away  the  rind  and  wood  on  one  side  about  three  inches  in 
length.  After  the  same  manner  cut  the  stock  or  branch  in 
the  place  where  the  graft  is  to  be  united,  so  that  the  rind 
of  both  may  join  equally  together,  that  the  sap  may  meet; 
then  cut  a little  tongue  upwards  in  the  graft,  and  make  a 
slit  in  the  stock  downward  to  admit  it ; so  that,  when  they 
are  joined,  the  tongue  will  prevent  their  slipping,  and  the 
graft  will  more  closely  unite  with  the  stock.  Having  thus 
placed  them  exactly  together,  they  must  be  tied  with  some 
bass  ; then  cover  the  place  wdth  grafting-clay,  to  prevent 
the  air  from  entering  to  dry  the  wound,  or  the  v/et  from 
getting  in  to  rot  the  stock  ; you  should  also  fix  a stake  in 
the  ground,  to  which  that  part  of  the  stock,  and  likewise  the 
graft,  should  be  fastened,  to  prevent  the  wind  from  break- 
ing them  asunder.  In  this  manner  they  should  remain 
a,bout  four  months,  w^hen  the  graft  may  be  cut  from  the 
mother  tree,  sloping  it  off  close  to  the  stock,  and  at  the 
same  time  covering  the  jointed  parts  wdth  fresh  grafting  clay. 

INDIAN  CORN.— Zea.— We  shall  not  undertake  to 
state  the  various  methods  employed  for  the  field-culture  of 
this  valuable  vegetable,  with  which  it  is  presumed  our 
readers  are,  generally,  acquainted.  But  as  it  is  often 
w^antcd  as  a culinary  article,  for  early  use,  and  cultivated  in 


INOCULATION,  OR  BUDDING.  165 

gardens  for  the  supply  of  the  table,  we  will  give  McMa- 
hon’s mode  of  raising  it : — 

cc  Procure  some  seed  of  the  earliest  kind,  and  select  a 
piece  of  dry,  sandy,  and  tolerably  rich  ground,  in  a warm 
exposure.  After  preparing  it  as  for  peas,  &c.  form  shallow 
drills,  about  two  inches  deep,  at  the  distance  of  six  feet 
from  each  other ; [four  feet  and  a half,  or  five  feet,  will  an- 
swer for  the  smallest  sorts ;]  drop  the  seeds  therein  two  feet 
and  a half  asunder,  and  two  grains  in  each  place ; strew 
a little  wood-ashes  in  the  drills,  and  cover  the  seeds  as  you 
would  peas.  As  the  plants  advance  in  growth,  earth  them 
up  two  or  three  times.  For  an  early  crop,  you  may  plant 
the  seed,  in  the  Middle  States,  about  the  first  of  May, 
[about  the  10th  in  the  Eastern  States,]  or  ten  days  earlier, 
should  the  season  prove  very  favourable. 

c‘  This  method  is  exclusively  intended  for  the  culture  of 
the  small  early  kinds.” 

INOCULATION,  or  BUDDING.— ‘c  The  object  in 
budding  is  the  same  as  in  grafting,  and  depends  on  the 
same  principle  ; all  the  difference  between  a bud  and  a 
scion  being  that  a bud  is  a shoot  or  scion  in  embryo. 

cc  A new  application  of  budding  has  been  made  by 
Knight.  It  is  that  of  transferring  ^ a part  of  the  abundant 
blossom-buds  from  one  tree  to  the  barren  branche-.  of  oth- 
ers.’ He  tried  this  first  on  roses,  and  afterwards  on  pears 
and  peaches,  with  much  success. 

Advantages  of  budding, — Budded  trees  are  generally  two 
years  later  in  producing  their  fruit  than  grafted  ones  ; but 
the  advantage  of  budding  is  that,  where  a tree  is  rare,  a 
new  plant  can  be  got  from  every  eye ; whereas  by  grafting 
it  can  only  be  got  from  every  three  or  four  eyes.  There  are 
also  trees,  which  propagate  much  more  readily  by  budding 
than  grafting ; and  others,  as  most  of  the  stone  fruits,  are 
apt  to  throw  out  gum  when  grafted.  When  grafting  has 
been  omitted,  or  has  failed,  in  spring,  budding  comes  in 
as  an  auxiliary  in  summer. 

Season  of  budding, — The  operation  of  common  bud- 
ding is  performed  any  time  from  the  beginning  of  July  to 
the  middle  of  August ; the  criterion  being  the  formation 
of  buds  in  the  axillae  of  the  leaf  of  the  present  year.  The 
buds  are  known  to  be  ready  by  the  shield  or  portion  of 
bark,  to  which  they  are  attached,  easily  parting  with  the 
wood.  The  buds  preferred  are  generally  those  on  the 
middle  of  a young  shoot,  as  being  neither  so  apt  to  run  to 
wood  as  those  at  the  extremity,  nor  so  apt  to  lie  dormant  as 


i66  INOCULATION,  OR  BUDDING. 

those  at  the  lower  end.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  buds 
from  the  middle  and  extremity  of  the  shoots  are  to  be  re- 
jected, and  those  taken  which  are  at  the  base  of  the  annual 
shoots,  AS  Knight  (Hort,  Trans,  vol.  iii.  p.  135)  found  in 
the  case  of  the  walnut-tree.  Scalope  budding  may  be 
performed  in  the  spring,  or  at  any  season. 

Stocks  for  budding  may,  in  general,  be  much  smaller 
than  for  grafting,  as  the  operation  may  be  performed  on 
the  same  year’s  shoot.  But  it  may  also  be  performed  on 
shoots  or  stems  of  several  years’  growth,  and  in  such,  by 
inserting  a number  of  buds,  a complete  tree  may  be  formed 
at  once.  Scalope  budding  may  be  performed  on  trees  of 
considerable  age. 

Choice  of  buds. — For  gathering  the  shoots  containing 
the  buds,  a cloudy  day,  or  an  early  or  late  hour,  should  be 
chosen,  on  this  principle,  that  the  leaves,  being  at  these 
periods  in  a less  active  state  of  perspiration,  suffer  least 
from  being  separated  from  their  parent  plant.  They  are 
preserved  fresh,  and  may  be  sent  a great  distance  by 
inserting  their  ends  in  water  or  moist  moss  ; though  in 
general  they  should  be  used  as  soon  after  gathering  as  pos- 
sible ; indeed,  as  in  grafting  and  inarching,  the  whole  ope- 
ration ought  to  be  performed  with  the  greatest  celerity. 

“ Kinds  of  budding, — Professor  Thouin  enumerates  twen- 
ty-three species  and  varieties  of  budding;  but  we  shall  here 
describe  only  four,  of  which  but  one  variety  is  in  general 
use  in  Britain. 

Shield-budding^  or  T budding,,  is  thus  performed  : — Fix 
on  a smooth  part  on  the  side  of  the  stock,  rather  from  than 
towards  the  sun,  and  of  a height  depending,  as  in  grafting, 
whether  dwarf,  whole  or  half  standard-trees  are  desired ; 
then,  with  the  budding-knife,  make  a horizontal  cut  across 
the  rind,  quite  through  to  the  firm  wood  ; from  the  mid- 
dle of  this  transverse  cut,  make  a slit  downward,  perpen- 
dicularly, an  inch  or  more  long,  going  also  quite  through 
to  the  wood.  This  done,  proceed  with  all  expedition  to 
take  off  a bud ; holding  the  cutting  or  scion  in  one  hand, 
with  the  thickest  end  outward,  and,  with  the  knife  in  the 
other  hand,  enter  it  about  half  an  inch  or  more  below  the 
bud,  cutting  near  half  way  into  the  wood  of  the  shoot,  con- 
tinuing it  with  one  clean  slanting  cut,  about  half  an  inch  or 
more  above  the  bud,  so  deep  as  to  take  off  part  of  the  wood 
along  with  it,  the  whole  about  an  inch  and  a half  long ; 
then,  directly,  with  the  thumb  and  finger,  or  point  of  the 
knife,  slip  off  the  woody  part  remaining  to  the  bud ; which 


INOCULATION,  OR  BUDDING. 


1G7 


done,  observe  whether  the  eye  or  gem  of  the  bud  remains 
perfect ; if  not,  and  a little  hole  appears  in  that  part,  it  is 
improper,  or,  as  gardeners  express  it,  the  hud  has  lost  its 
root,  and  another  must  be  prepared.  This  done,  placing 
the  back  part  of  the  bud  or  shield  between  your  lips,  expe- 
ditiously, with  the  flat  haft  of  the  knife,  separate  the  bark 
of  the  stock  on  each  side  of  the  perpendicular  cut,  clear  to 
the  wood,  for  the  admission  of  the  bud,  which  directly  slip 
down,  close  between  the  wood  and  bark  to  the  bottom  of 
the  slit.  The  next  operation  is  to  cut  off  the  top  part  of 
the  shield,  and  protrude  granulated  matter  between  it  and 
the  wood,  so  as  to  effect  a living  union.  The  parts  are  now 
to  be  immediately  bound  round  with  a ligament  of  fresh 
bass,  previously  soaked  in  water  to  render  it  pliable  and 
tough,  beginning  a little  below  the  bottom  of  the  perpen- 
dicular slit,  proceeding  upward,  closely  round  every  part, 
except  just  over  the  eye  of  the  bud,  and  continue  it  a little 
above  the  horizontal  cut,  not  too  tight,  but  just  suflicient 
to  keep  the  whole  tight,  and  exclude  the  air,  sun,  and 
wet. 

“ Shield-budding  reversed^  or  reversed  X budding^  differs 
from  the  former  in  having  the  transverse  cut  made  at  the 
bottom  of  the  perpendicular  slit,  instead  of  at  its  top,  and,  of 
course,  the  shield  is  reversed  in  its  position.  This  mode  is 
represented  as  preferable  to  the  other,  by  such  as  contend 
that  the  sap  rises  in  the  bark  equally  with  the  wood  ; but 
as  this  opinion  is  now  generally  considered  as  exploded, 
the  first,  or  T mode,  may  justly  be  considered  as  the  most 
scientific  mode  of  budding. 

Scalope-biidding  consists  in  paring  a thin,  tongue-shaped 
section  of  bark  from  the  side  of  the  stock ; and  in  taking  a 
similar  section  from  the  shoot  of  buds,  in  neither  case 
removing  the  wood.  The  section  or  shield  containing  the 
bud  is  then  laid  on  the  corresponding  scollop  in  the  stock ; 
its  upper  edge  exactly  fitted,  ,as  in  shield-budding,  and  at 
least  one  of  its  edges,  as  in  whip-grafting.  After  this,  it  is 
tied  in  the  usual  way.  The  advantages  of  this  mode  are, 
that  it  can  be  performed  when  the  wood  and  bark  do  not 
separate  freely ; on  trees  having  very  stiff,  thick,  suberose 
[cork-like]  barks,  and  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Its  dis- 
advantages are,  that  it  requires  longer  time  to  perform  the 
operation,  and  is  less  certain  of  success.  The  French  gar- 
deners often  bud  their  roses  in  this  manner  in  spring ; and 
if  they  fail,  they  have  a second  chance  in  July,  by  using  the 
common  mode. 


168 


INOCULATION,  OR  BUDDING. 


“ Budding  with  double  ligatures  is  a mode  invented  by- 
Knight,  and  described  by  him  {Hort,  Tram.  vol.  i.  p.  194) 
as  ‘a  new  and  expeditious  mode  of  budding.’  The  opera- 
tions are  performed  in  the  manner  first  above  described; 
but,  instead  of  one  ligature,  tw  o are  applied,  one  above  the 
bud  inserted  on  the  transverse  section  through  the  bark ; 
the  other,  which  had  no  further  office  than  that  of  securing 
the  bud,  was  applied  below  in  the  usual  way.  As  soon  as 
the  buds  had  attached  themselves,  the  lower  ligature  was 
taken  off,  but  the  others  were  suffered  to  remain.  ^ The 
passage  of  the  sap  upwards  was,  in  consequence,  much  ob- 
structed, and  the  inserted  buds  began  to  vegetate  strongly 
in  July,  (being  inserted  in  June;)  and  when  these  had 
afforded  shoots  about  four  inches  long,  the  remaining  liga- 
tures were  taken  off  to  permit  the  excess  of  sap  to  pass  on, 
and  the  young  shoots  were  nailed  to  the  w^all.  Being  there 
properly  exposed  to  the  light,  their  young  w^ood  ripened 
well,  and  afforded  blossoms  in  the  succeeding  spring;  and 
these  would,’  he  adds,  ‘no  doubt  have  afforded  fruit;  but 
that,  leaving  my  residence,  I removed  my  trees,’  &c. 

“ Future  treatment. — In  a fortnight,  at  furthest,  after  bud- 
ding, such  as  have  adhered  may  be  known  by  their  fresh 
appearance  at  the  eye  ; and  in  three  weeks,  all  those  which 
have  succeeded  will  be  firmly  united  with  the  stock,  and, 
the  parts  being  somewhat  swelled  in  most  species,  the 
bandage  must  be  loosened,  and,  a week  or  two  afterwards, 
finally  removed.  The  shield  and  bud  now  swell  in  com- 
mon with  the  other  parts  of  the  stock ; and  nothing  more 
requires  to  be  done  till  spring,  wffien,  just  before  the  rising 
of  the  sap,  they  are  to  be  headed  down  close  to  the  bud, 
by  an  oblique  cut,  terminating  about  an  eighth  or  a quarter 
of  an  inch  above  the  shield.  In  some  cases,  however,  as 
in  grafting,  a few  inches  of  the  stalk  is  left  for  the  first  sea- 
son, and  the  young  shoot  tied  to  it  for  protection  from  the 
winds.” — Encifc.  of  Gardening. 

Mr.  Abner  Landrum  mentions  a mode  of  treating  the 
stock,  and  recently  inserted  bud,  somewhat  different  from 
that  of  Mr.  Knight,  as  detailed  above.  Instead  of  Mr. 
Knight’s  method  of  using  a strong  ligature  above  the 
inserted  bud,  he  adopts  the  following: — As  soon  as  it  can  be 
ascertained  that  the  bud  will  live,  which,  he  says,  may  be 
in  about  a v/eek,  if  the  stock  be  small,  let  it  be  instantly 
headed  dowm,  just  above  the  bud  to  be  nourished.  If  the 
stock  be  large,  amputate  the  principal  branches ; and  the 
consequence  wnll  be,  an  immediate  bursting  of  all  the  latent 


INSECTS. 


1G9 


buds,  together  with  the  inoculated  one.  As  the  inoculated 
branches  multiply,  diminish  the  original  one  till  nothing 
remains  but  the  new  tree. — iV.  E,  Farmer^  vol.  i.  p.  146. 

Mr.  Buel,  of  Albany,  in  a note  to  A Treatise  on  Gar^ 
dening,  written  by  Mr.  Armstrong,  says,  “The  modern, 
and,  from  experience,  I do  not  hesitate  to  call  it  the  best, 
method,  is,  to  insert  the  bud  without  separating  the  wood  from 
it,  I have  budded,  the  two  last  years,  in  June.  If  thus  in- 
serted early,  and  the  stocks  headed  down  when  the  liga- 
tures are  removed,  the  buds  often  make  half  a year’s  growth 
the  same  season,  and  are  not  so  apt  to  suffer  from  the 
severity  of  the  winter,  as  those  which  remain  dormant.” — 
Mem,  of  N,  Y,  Board  of  Agriculture^  vol.  iii.  p.  17. 

INSECTS. — It  would  far  transcend  our  limits  to  give 
even  a brief  description  of  the  various  soits  of  insects  which 
injure  gardens,  cultivated  fields,  &c.,  and  destroy  the  best 
productions  of  our  soil.  We  shall,  theiefore,  confine  our- 
selves to  stating,  briefly,  some  of  the  most  approved  modes 
of  counteracting  the  ravages,  and  effecting  the  destruction, 
of  a few  of  those  which  are  most  injurious  to  the  cultivator. 

The  preventive  operations  are  those  of  the  best  culture, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  the  term,  including  what  re- 
lates to  choice  of  seed  or  plant,  soil,  situation,  and  climate. 
If  these  are  carefully  attended  to,  it  will  seldom  happen, 
that  any  species  of  insect  will  effect  serious  and  permanent 
injury.  Vegetables,  which  are  vigorous  and  thrifty,  are  not 
apt  to  be  injured  by  wwms,  flies,  bugs,  &c.  Fall  plough- 
ing, by  exposing  worms,  grubs,  the  larvae  of  bugs,  beetles, 
&c.,  to  the  intense  frosts  of  our  winters,  is  very  beneficial. 
Insects  may  be  annoyed,  and,  oftentimes,  their  complete 
destruction  efi'ected,  by  sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of 
a syringe,  watering-pot,  or  garden-engine,  simple  water, 
soap-suds,  tobacco-water,  decoctions  of  elder,  especially  of 
the  dwarf  kind,  of  walnut  leaves,  bitter  and  acrid  herbs, 
pepper,  lye  of  wood-ashes,  or  solutions  of  pot  and  pearl 
ashes,  water  impregnated  with  salt,  tar,  turpentine,  &c.  ; or, 
they  may  be  dusted  with  sulphur,  quick-lime,  and  other 
acrid  substances.  Loudon  says,  “ Saline  substances,  mixed 
with  water,  are  injurious  to  most  insects  with  tender  .^kins, 
as  the  worm  and  slug;  and  hot  water,  where  it  can  be 
applied  without  injuring  vegetation,  is  equally,  if  not  more 
powerfully,  injurious.  Water  heated  to  120  or  130  degrees 
will  not  injure  plants,  whose  leaves  are  expanded,  and,  in 
some  degree,  hardened ; and  water  at  200  degrees,  or  up- 
wards, may  be  poured  over  leafless  plants.  The  effects  of 
15 


170 


INSECTS. 


insects  may  also  be  palliated  on  one  species  of  plant,  bj 
presenting  to  them  another,  which  they  prefer : thus  wasps 
are  said  to  prefer  carrots,  the  berries  of  the  yew,  and  the 
honey  of  the  hoya,  to  grapes  ; honey,  or  sugared  water,  to 
ripe  fruit,  and  so  on.  One  insect  or  animal  may  also  be  set 
to  eat  another,  as  ducks  for  slugs  and  worms,  turkeys  for 
the  same  purpose,  and  caterpillars  and  ants  for  aphides, 
and  so  on.” 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Falconer,  one  of  the  correspondents  of  the 
Bath  Agricultural  Society,  strongly  recommends  soap-suds, 
both  as  a manure  and  antidote  against  insects.  He  observes, 
that  ‘‘This  mixture  of' an  oil  and  an  alkali  has  been  more 
generally  known  than  adopted  as  a remedy  against  the  in- 
sects which  infest  wall  fruit-trees.  It  will  dislodge  and  de- 
stroy the  insects  which  have  already  formed  their  nests,  and 
bred  among  the  leaves.  When  used  in  the  early  part  of  the 
year,  it  seems  to  prevent  the  insects  from  settling  upon  them.” 
He  prefers  soap-suds  to  lime-water,  because  lime  soon 
“ loses  its  causticity,  and  with  that  its  efficacy,  by  exposure 
to  air,  and  must,  consequently,  be  frequently  applied  ; and 
to  the  dredging  of  the  leaves  with  the  fine  dust  of  wood- 
ashes  and  lime,  because  the  same  effect  is  produced  by  the 
mixture,  without  the  same  labour,  and  is  obtained  without 
any  expense.”  He  directs  to  make  use  of  a common 
garden-pump  for  sprinkling  trees  with  soap-suds,  and  says, 
if  the  water  of  a washing  cannot  be  had,  a quantity  of  pot- 
ash, dissolved  in  water,  may  be  substituted,  and  that  the 
washing  of  the  trees  with  soap-suds  twice  a week,  for  three 
or  four  weeks,  in  the  spring,  will  be  sufficient  to  secure 
them  from  aphides,  &c. 

Other  modes  of  counteracting  the  effects  of  insects  are 
pointed  out  in  treating  of  the  plants  which  are  most  liable 
to  be  injured  by  them.  We  shall,  however,  make  some 
remarks  on  a few  of  those  which  are  most  common  and 
injurious  to  the  interests  of  the  cultivator. 

Canker-worm. — We  shall  not  attempt  to  give  either  a 
description  or  the  natural  history  of  the  canker-worm,  but 
refer  to  Professor  Peck’s  Memoir  on  the  subject,  (which 
was  originally  published  in  the  Mass.  Agricultural  Repository 
and  republished  in  the  N.  E.  Farmer.,  vol.  v.  p.  393,)  and  di- 
rect our  attention,  exclusively,  to  the  remedies,  which  have 
been  used  or  suggested  to  preserve  fruit-trees  from  this  for- 
midable enemy. 

The  female  of  this  insect  comes  out  of  the  ground  late 
in  the  fall,  early  in  the  spring,  or,  sometimes,  during  a peri- 


INSECTS. 


171 


od  of  mild,  open  weather,  in  winter.  Those  which  rise 
in  autumn  or  in  winter  are  less  numerous  than  those  which 
ascend  in  spiking;  but,  being  very  prolific,  they  do  much 
injury.  One  method  of  preventing  the  ravages  of  the 
worm  is  to  bar  the  ascent  of  the  females  up  the  stem  of 
the  tree.  This  has  generally  been  attempted  by  tarring ; 
of  which  there  are  several  modifications  : — 

1.  A strip  of  linen  or  canvass  is  put  round  the  body  of 
the  tree,  before  the  females  begin  their  ascent,  and  well 
smeared  with  tar.  The  insects,  in  attempting  to  pass  this 
barrier,  stick  fast,  and  perish.  But  this  process,  to  com- 
plete the  desired  effect,  must  be  commenced  about  the  first 
of  November,  and  the  tarring  continued,  when  the  weather 
is  mild  enough  to  permit  the  worms  to  emerge  from  the 
ground,  till  the  latter  end  of  May,  or  till  the  time  of  their 
ascent  is  past.  It  is  necessary  to  fill  the  crevices  in  the 
bark  with  clay  mortar,  before  the  strip  of  linen  or  canvass 
is  put  on,  that  the  insects  may  not  pass  under  it.  Having 
put  on  the  strip,  which  should  be  at  least  three  inches  wide, 
draw  it  close,  fasten  the  ends  together  strongly,  then  tie  a 
thumb-rope  of  tow  round  the  tree,  close  to  the  lower  edge 
of  the  strip.  The  design  of  this  is  to  prevent  the  tar  from 
running  down  the  bark  of  the  tree,  which  would  injure  it. 
It  should  be  renewed,  in  moderate  weather,  once  a day, 
without  fail.  The  best  time  is  soon  after  sunset,  because 
the  insects  are  wont  to  pass  up  in  the  evening,  and  the  tar 
will  not  harden  so  much  in  the  night  as  the  day. 

2.  Another  mode  of  tarring  is  to  take  two  pretty  wide 
pieces  of  board  ; plane  them ; make  semi-circular  notches  in 
each,  fitting  them  to  the  stem  or  body  of  the  tree  ; and  fasten 
them  together  securely  at  the  ends,  so  that  the  most  violent 
storms  may  not  displace  them.  The  crevices  betwixt  the 
boards  and  the  tree  may  be  easily  stopped  with  rags  or 
tow ; then  smear  the  under-sides  of  the  boards  with  tar. 
The  tar,  being  defended  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
will  hold  its  tenacity  the  longer,  and,  therefore,  need  not 
be  frequently  renewed.  The  trees,  in  this  way,  will  be 
less  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  drippings  of  tar,  by  leaving 
a margin  of  two  or  three  inches,  on  those  parts  of  the 
boards  which  are  next  to  the  trees,  to  which  no  tar  is  ap- 
plied. 

3.  Another  mode  of  blockading  the  paths  of  the  insects, 
in  their  ascent  up  the  trees,  is  to  enclose  them  with  collars, 
or  circular  slips  of  tin.  Of  this  method  we  have  seen  some 
notices,  but  no  description.  We  presume,  however,  that 


172 


INSECTS. 


the  pieces  of  tin  are  shaped,  and  fitted  to  the  trees,  some- 
what like  the  boards  above-mentioned,  and  perhaps,  if  the 
outer  rims  of  the  collars  were  curved,  or  bent  downwards, 
they  might  present  obstacles,  which  the  worms  could  not 
pass,  even  if  no  tar  was  applied.  We  fear  that  this 
method  would  prove  too  expensive  for  general  adoption, 
but  would  solicit  further  information  on  this  subject  from 
those  who  have  a practical  knowledge  of  its  application 
and  results. 

4.  Another  method,  proposed  by  Dr.  Jeremiah  Spof- 
ford,  of  Bradford.  Mass.,  is,  to  spread  mercurial  ointment 
( Unguentum  hydrargyn)  upon  strips  of  woollen  cloth,  or 
narrow  lists,  such  as  are  cut  from  the  edges  of  broadcloth, 
and  apply  them  closely  round  the  trees,  having  first  made 
the  bark  smooth  where  it  is  not  so,  that  none  of  the  grubs, 
or  f:  .nales  that  deposit  the  eggs,  from  which  the  worm? 
are  produced,  may  pass  under  the  band  or  strip,  which 
cont  Ins  the  ointment.  Dr.  Spofford  observes  that  “ the 
advantages  of  using  the  unguentum  over  any  mode  in 
common  use  are  obvious.  While  tar  requires  to  be  renew- 
ed every  night,  that  it  may  catch  and  hold  the  grub,  merely 
by  its  tenacity,  this  mode  requires  preparing  but  once  a 
year,  and  will  be  growing  stronger  for  a long  time,  by  an 
increased  oxidation  of  the  mercury,  when  exposed  to  the 
air.” — See  iV.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  iv.  p.  377. 

The  Mass,  Agr,  Repos,  vol.  iii.  No.  4,  contains  some  re- 
marks on  the  canker-worm,  by  the  Hon.  John  I. -well, 
president  of  the  Mass.  Agr.  Soc.  from  which  the  following 
is  extracted : — 

“ I had  the  turf  dug  in  around  sixty  apple-trees,  and  the 
earth  laid  smooth.  I then  took  three  hogsheads  of  effete,, 
or  air-slaked  lime,  and  strewed  it  an  inch  thick  round  my 
trees,  to  the  extent  of  two  or  three  feet  from  the  roots,  so 
that  the  whole  diameter  of  the  opening  was  from  four  to 
six  feet. 

‘‘  I tarred  these  trees  as  well  as  the  others,  and,  although 
I had  worms  or  grubs  on  most  that  were  not  limed,  I did 
not  catch  a single  grub  where  the  trees  were  limed. 

‘‘  I do  not  speak  with  confidence.  I am,  however, 
strongly  encouraged  to  believe  the  remedy  perfect.  It  was 
ascertained  by  Professor  Peck,  that  the  insect  seldom  de- 
scended into  the  ground  at  a greater  distance  than  three  or 
four  feet  from  the  trunk,  and  to  the  depth  of  four  inches, 
or  that  the  greater  part  come  within  that  distance.  The 
lime  is  known  to  be  destructive  of  all  animal  substances. 


INSECTS. 


173 


and  I have  little  doubt  that  it  actually  decomposes  and  de- 
stroys the  insect  in  the  chrysalis  state ; at  least  I hope  that 
this  is  the  case. 

‘‘  There  are  many  reasons,  which  should  encourage  a 
repetition  of  this  experiment.  The  digging  round  the  trees 
is  highly  useful  to  them,  while  tarring  is  very  injurious. 
The  expense  is  not  great.  A man  can  dig  round  fifty  trees 
in  one  day.  The  lime  is  a most  salutary  manure  to  the 
tree.  After  the  spot  has  been  once  opened  and  limed,  the 
labour  of  keeping  it  open  will  not  be  great.  Three  hogs- 
heads of  air-slaked  lime,  or  the  sweepings  of  a lime-store, 
will  suffice  for  fifty  trees,  and  will  cost  three  dollars.  As 
it  is  done  but  once  a year,  I think  it  cannot  be  half  so  ex- 
pensive as  tarring. 

I repeat  it,  that  I mention  my  experiments  with  great 
diffidence,  as  being  the  first  of  my  own  knowledge.  It 
may  induce  several  persons  to  try  it  in  different  places,  and 
where  trees  are  surrounded  with  others,  which  are  treated 
differently.  All  I pray  is,  that  it  may  prove  successful,  and 
relieve  us  from  this  dreadful  scourge,  which  defaces  our 
country,  while  it  impoverishes  and  disappoints  the  farmer.” 

The  remedies  proposed  by  Professor  Peck  were,  1st, — 
Turning  up  the  ground  carefully  in  October,  as  far  as  the 
branches  of  a tree  extend,  to  half  a spade’s  depth,  or  five 
inches,  so  as  completely  to  invert  the  surface.  A great 
number  of  chrysalids  would  thus  be  exposed  to  the  air  and 
sun,  and  of  course  destroyed.  2dly, — Breaking  the  clods, 
and  smoothing  the  surface  with  a rake,  and  passing  a heavy 
roller  over  it,  so  as  to  make  it  very  hard,  and  without  cracks. 
In  grass-grounds,  the  sods  should  be  turned  with  the  grass- 
side  down,  and  placed  side  by  side,  so  as  to  be  rolled. 
The  winter’s  frosts  w^ould  heave  and  crack  a smooth  sur- 
face, but  it  might  be  smoothed  and  hardened  by  the  roller, 
or  by  other  means,  in  March,  with  much  less  trouble,  time, 
and  expense,  than  rolling  requires.  As  lime,  when  sla- 
ked, is  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  and  is  thus  well 
adapted  to  close  the  openings  in  the  surface,  Mr,  P.  was 
inclined  to  think  its  good  effects  ere  produced  this  way  as 
well  as  by  its  caustic  qualities. — Thacher'^s  Orchardist^  p.  93. 

John  Kenrick,  Esq.,  of  Newton,  Mass.,  proposed,  be- 
tween the  time  in  June  after  the  worms  had  disappeared 
and  the  20th  of  October,  to  take  the  whole  of  the  soil  sur- 
rounding the  trees,  to  the  extent  at  least  of  four  feet  from 
the  trunk,  and  to  a suitable  depth,  and  cart  it  away  to  a 
distance  from  any  trees,  which  the  canker-worms  are  in  the 
15^ 


174 


INSECTS. 


habit  of  feeding  on ; and  returning  an  equal  quantity  of 
compost,  or  rich  earth,  intermixed  with  manure. 

A writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  327, 
states  a c*ase  of  an  orchard  having  been  preserved  from 
canker-worms,  by  means  of  a large  number  of  locust-trees, 
equal  to  about  double  the  number  of  apple-trees. 

Mr.  Roland  Howard,  of  Easton,  Mass.,  observes,  {N.  E. 
Farmer^  vol.  iv.  p.  391,)  that  ‘‘A  quantity  of  lime  was  col- 
lected from  the  sweepings  of  a lime-store,  and  spread  on 
the  ground  around  a certain  apple-tree,  some  time  in  the 
month  of  November;  (the  foliage  of  which  tree  had  been 
destroyed  by  the  canker-worm  the  preceding  summer  ;) 
the  ground  being  in  a pulverized  state,  the  lime  was  spread 
as  far  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  as  the  drippings  from  the 
branches  extended  : the  effect  was  stated  to  be  the  entire 
disappearance  of  the  worm,  and  an  increased  vigour  of  the 
tree.’’  The  same  writer  observes, that  ‘‘moving  the  earth 
with  a plough  or  hoe  late  in  November,  or  beginning  of 
December,  has  been  found  very  efficacious  in  destroying 
them.”  This  last  mentioned  remedy,  if  it  will  always 
prove  efficient,  will  probably  be  the  cheapest  and  most  ex- 
pedient. But  the  worm  must  be  capable  of  enduring  a 
considerable  degree  of  cold,  or  unerring  instinct  would  not 
lead  it  from  its  dormitory  in  November  (as  it  frequently 
does)  to  brave  the  rigours  of  winter  on  the  stem  or  branch- 
es of  the  tree.  We  are  inclined  to  believe,  as  well  as  to 
hope,  that  the  application  of  lime,  as  above  stated,  will 
prove  effectual ; and,  if  so,  it  will  probably  be  preferable  to 
any  mode  of  applying  tar.  or  attacking  the  enemy  above 
ground. 

When  the  insects  have  ascended,  their  numbers  may  be 
lessened  by  jarring  or  shaking  the  body  or  limbs  of  the 
tree,  causing  them  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  threads, 
which  they  spin  from  their  bodies,  and  striking  them  off 
with  a stick.  It  is  said  that  those  which  thus  fall  to  the 
earth  do  not  rise  again.  Whether  they  would  be  able  to 
resist  the  effects  of  a sprinkling  with  soap-suds,  saline  or 
bitter  infusions,  &c.  is  more  than  we  can  say ; but  we  wish 
their  powers  might  be  tested  by  showering  them  with  those 
mixtures,  which  are  found  to  be  the  best  antidotes  against 
other  insects. 

Caterpillah. — “ This  is  one  of  the  worst  enemies  to 
an  orchard,  when  neglected ; but  easily  destroyed  by  a 
little  attention.  In  the  spring,  when  the  nests  are  small, 
and  the  insects  young  and  tender,  they  never  venture 


INSECTS. 


175 


abroad  in  the  early  part  of  the  day,  when  the  dew  is  on 
the  trees,  or  in  bad  weather ; they  may  then  be  effectually 
destroyed  by  crushing  them  in  the  nest;  this  attention,  con- 
tinued a short  time  every  spring,  will  destroy  those  in 
existence,  and  Vv  ill  prevent  their  increase  in  future  years  : 
if  left  till  grown  strong,  they  wander  from  their  nests,  and 
cannot  be  effectually  overcome  without  great  trouble  and 
expense.” — Coxe  on  Fruit  Trees, 

The  Hon.  Timothy  Pickering,  in  a letter  to  the  corre- 
sponding secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety, has  recommended  an  implement  for  the  destruction  of 
caterpillars.  It  is  made  by  inserting  some  hog’s  bristles 
between  twisted  wires,  in  such  manner  as  to  form  a cylin- 
drical brush,  which  will  present  bristles  on  every  side. 
This  is  attached  to  a pole  of  such  length  as  the  trees  may 
require,  and  the  caterpillars  are  brought  down  by  it,  and 
then  crushed.  Other  methods  have  been  proposed,  such  as 
casting  over  the  tree  a few  handfuls  of  ashes,  in  the  morning 
before  the  dew  is  dissipated  from  the  foliage,  or  after  a show- 
er of  rain.  A strong  whitewash  of  fresh  stone-lime,  applied 
by  the  means  of  a mop,  or  sponge  fixed  to  the  end  of  a 
pole,  strong  soap-suds,  spirits  of  turpentine,  a little  oil  of  any 
Idnd,  particularly  blubber  oil,  are  likewise  fatal  to  the  in- 
sects. But,  perhaps,  the  most  effectual  remedy  is  the  Aawc?, 
by  which  the  insects  may  easily  be  removed  at  an  early 
stage  ; but  if  this  be  neglected,  it  is  thought  that  the  next 
best  remedy  is  the  use  of  Col.  Pickering’s  brush  as  above. 
In  applying  either  of  these  remedies,  care  must  be  taken 
to  choose  that  part  of  the  day,  when  the  caterpillars  are  in 
their  nests.  They  rarely  quit  them  till  nine  o’clock,  and 
generally  return  to  them  again  about  twelve. 

CuRCULio. — This  is  a small  bug,  or  beetle,  which  perfo- 
rates the  young  fruit  of  the  pear,  apple,  and  all  stone  fruits, 
and  deposits  its  eggs  in  them.  The  eggs  soon  hatch,  and  a 
small  maggot  is  produced,  which  feeds  either  on  the  pulp 
of  the  fruit,  or  on  the  kernel  of  the  seed ; for  the  tastes  and 
habits  of  the  different  species  are  not  similar.  In  the  stone 
fruits,  this  injury  destroys  their  growth,  and  they  fall  with 
their  little  enemy  within  them.  The  insect  retreats  into  the 
earth,  and  passes  the  winter  in  the  chrysalis  state,  and  comes 
forth  just  as  the  young  fruit  is  forming,  or  the  petals  of  the 
flowers  are  falling,  to  renew  its  mischievous  labours. 
This  insect  continues  its  depredations  from  the  first  of  May 
until  autumn.  Dr.  James  Tilton,  of  Wilmington,  Dela- 
ware, in  an  article  on  this  subject,  published  in  the  Ameri- 


176 


INSECTS, 


can  editions  of  Willich^s  Domestic  Encyclopedia^  observes 
that  “ Our  fruits,  collectively  estimated,  must  thereby  be 
depreciated  more  than  half  their  value;”  and  adds,  in  his 
directions  for  destroying  the  insect,  All  the  domestic  ani- 
mals, if  well  directed,  contribute  to  this  purpose.  Hogs, 
in  a special  manner,  are  qualified  for  the  work  of  extermi- 
nation. In  large  orchards,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
stock  of  hogs  is  sufficient  to  eat  up  all  the  early  fruit  which 
falls  from  May  till  August.  This  precaution  will  be  more 
especially  necessary  in  large  peach  orchards;  for,  other- 
wise, when  the  hogs  become  cloyed  with  the  pulp  of  the 
peach,  they  will  let  it  fall  out  of  their  mouths,  and  content 
themselves  with  the  kernel,  which  they  like  better ; and 
thus  the  curculio,  escaping  from  their  jaws,  may  hide 
under  ground  till  next  spring.” 

The  ordinary  fowls  of  a farm-yard  are  great  devourers 
of  beetles.  Poultry,  in  general,  are  regarded  as  carnivo- 
rous in  the  summer,  and  therefore  cooped  some  time  before 
they  are  eaten.  Every  body  knows  with  what  avidity  ducks 
seize  on  the  tumble-bug,  (Scarabceus  carnifex^)  and  it  is 
probable  the  curculio  is  regarded,  by  all  fowls,  as  an 
equally  delicious  morsel.  Therefore  it  is  that  the  smooth 
stone  fruits,  particularly,  succeed  much  better  in  lanes  and 
yards,  where  poultry  run  without  restraint,  than  in  gardens 
and  other  enclosures,  where  fowls  are  excluded.^’ 

Instead  of  turning  swine  into  orchards,  to  pick  up  the 
fruit  which  falls,  and  thus  destroy  the  worms  which  it  con- 
tains, it  will  often  be  found  most  expedient  to  gather  such 
fruit,  and  give  it  to  swine  in  pens,  &c.,  either  raw,  or,  what 
would  be  better,  boiled.  If  such  measures  were  generally 
taken,  with  fruit  which  falls  spontaneously,  as  to  prevent 
the  insects,  which  generally  cause  it  to  drop  prematurely, 
from  escaping  into  the  ground,  the  worms,  which  destroy 
one  half  our  fruit,  and  very  much  deteriorate  a considerable 
part  of  the  other  half,  would  soon  be  extirpated  from  our 
orchards  and  fruit-gardens. 

Aphis,  Plant-louse,  Puceron,  or  Vine-fretter. — This 
genus  of  insects  comprises  many  species  and  varieties, 
which  are  denominated  from  the  plants  they  infest.  The 
males  are  winged,  and  the  females  without  wings  : they 
are  viviparous,  producing  their  young  alive,  in  the  spring; 
and  also  oviparous,  laying  eggs  in  autumn.  Water,  dashed 
with  force  from  a syringe,  [or  garden  engine,]  will  prove 
as  destructive  to  them  as  any  thing,  when  on  trees ; and 
smaller  plants  may  be  washed  with  lime-water,  with  tobac- 


)N  SECTS. 


177 


co-water,  s\  Uh  elder  leaves  iiilused  in  water,  or  with  com- 
mon soap-suds,  any  ol’  which  will  destroy  the  insects.” — 
Loudon.  ‘^Tie  up  some  Hour  of  sulphur  in  a piece  of  mus- 
lin, or  tine  linen,  and  with  this  the  leaves  of  young  shoots 
or  plants  should  be  dusted,  or  it  may  be  thrown  on  them  by 
means  of  a common  swan’s-down  puff,  or  even  a dredging 
box.  Sulphur  has  also  been  found  to  promote  the  health 
of  plants,  on  which  it  was  sprinkled,  and  that  peach  trees, 
in  particular,  were  remarkably  improved  by  it.” — Dorn. 
Encyc.  In  green-houses  they  are  readily  destroyed  by 
the  smoke  of  tobacco,  or  of  sulphur.  But  in  the  open  air, 
fumigation,  though  much  in  vogue  many  years  since,  is  of 
no  avail.  The  best  remedy  is  the  simplest.  Soap-suds, 
forcibly  applied,  will,  after  one  or  two  applications,  effectu- 
ally destroy  them,  without  apparent  injury  to  the  plant.” — 
Deane. 

A writer  for  the  New  England  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  9,  after 
stating  a number  of  experiments  with  soap-suds,  for  destroy 
ing  aphides,  which  were  unsuccessful,  or  but  partially  suc- 
ceeded, says,  I was  led  to  conclude,  that  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  wet  the  upper  side  of  the  leaves,  thinking  to  make  them 
disagreeable  or  poisonous  to  the  insect,  but  that  they  must 
be  well  drenched  or  immersed  in  the  suds.  I therefore 
applied  again  the  same  remedy ; but  with  this  difference, — 
instead  of  sprinkling  the  upper  side  of  the  branches,  I car- 
ried a pailful  of  suds  from  tree  to  tree,  and,  bending  the 
tops  of  small  trees,  and  the  branches  of  larger  ones,  im- 
mersed all  the  parts  infested  with  lice,  holding  them  in  the 
liquor  for  a moment,  that  none  might  escape  being  well 
wet.  On  examining  the  trees  the  next  day,  the  greater 
part  of  the  lice  were  destroyed.  It  was  found  necessary  to 
repeat  the  same  process  once  or  twice,  with  suds  not  too 
weak,  say  about  two  or  three  ounces  of  soap  to  a gallon  of 
water.”  Another  writer  in  the  same  paper,  p.  10,  says, 

I have  applied  soap-suds  to  my  apple-tr^es,  in  order  to 
kill  the  lice.  It  will  be  sufhcient  for  me  to  say,  that  just 
sprinkling  them  with  suds  will  not  kill  them  ; neither  will 
dipping  the  branches,  which  are  infested  with  them,  kill 
them.  But  dipping  and  holding  them  in  as  long  as  I can 
conveniently  hold  my  breath,  will  destroy  every  one.  The 
suds  do  not  appear  to  injure  the  leaves.  I tried  suds  made 
on  purpose,  and  suds  which  had  been  used  for  family  wash- 
ing. The  latter  answers  the  purpose  much  the  best.”  It 
is  possible  to  make  soap-suds  so  strong  as  to  kill  the  ten- 
der branches,  as  well  as  the  insects  which  infest  them* 


17B 


IN  skcTsJ. 


The  proportion  abov e-munuoned,  ol‘  two  or  three  ounces  of 
soap  to  a gallon  of  water,  is,  probably,  most  advisable. 

Cut-worm. — This  is  an  ash-colonred  worm,  with  a stripe 
almost  blaek  on  its  back.  When  fully  grown  it  is  about 
the  size  of  a goose-quill,  and  eibout  an  inch  and  a quarter  in 
length.  They  are  very  apt  to  cut  olf  young  cabbages,  cau-^ 
lillowers,  beets,  &c.  They  never  yoluntarily  appear  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  in  the  day  time,  but  may  be  found 
about  an  inch  below  it.  In  the  night  they  make  their 
excursions,  cut  off  the  stems  of  young  plants  just  at  the  top 
of  the  ground,  and  a 'gain  bury  themselves. 

Dr.  Deane  observed,  I once  prevented  their  depreda- 
tions in  my  garden,  by  manuring  the  soil  with  sea-mud, 
newly  taken  fvom  the  flats.  The  plants  generally  escaped^ 
though  every  one  was  cut  off  in  a spot  of  ground  that  lies 
eontiguou  6.  From  the  success  of  this  experiment,  I con- 
clude ^j^at  salt  is  very  offensive  or  pernicious  to  therm- 
Lime,  and  ashes,  in  some  measure,  prevent  their  doing  mis- 
; but  sea-water,  salt,  or  brine,  would  be  more  eflectu- 
al  antidotes.  The  most  effectual,  and  not  a laborious 
remedy,  even  in  field-culture,  is  to  go  round  every  niornin^^. 
and  open  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  plant,  and  you  will* 
never  fail  to  find  the  v/orm  at  the  root,  within  four  inches.. 
Kill  him,  and  you  will  save  not  only  the  other  plants  of 
your  field,  but,  probably,  many  thousands  in  future  years.”’ 

There  is  some  danger  in  making  use  of  salt,  brine,  of 
sea-water,  of  injuring  the  plants  in  attempting  to  destroys 
insects ; and  we  should,  therefore,  generally  prefer  decoc- 
tions of  elder,  walnut  leaves,  or  tobacco.  Mr.  Fresto'ii*,  of 
Stockport,  Penn.,  preserved  his  cabbage-plants  from  cut- 
worms, by  wrapping  a bivckory-leaf  round  the  stem,  between 
the  roots  and  leaves. — W.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  369.  The 
Hon.  Mr.  Fiske,  of  Worcester,  Mass.,  in  speaking  of  this 
insect,  says,.  “ To  search  out  the  spoiler,  and  kill  him,  is  the 
very  best  course ; but,  as  his  existence  is  not  known  except 
by  ifis  ravages,  I make  a fortress,  for  my  plants,  with  paper,, 
winding  it  conically  and  firmly  a.bove  the  root,  amd  securing 
it  by  a low  embankment  of  earth.” — N.  E.  Farmer ^ vol. 
p.  362. 

Lice  on  apple-trees. — There  is  a species  of  insect  in- 
festing apple-trees,  which  may  be  styled  the  hark-louse^  to* 
distinguish  it  from  the  plant-louse^  or  aphis.  It  is,  in  form,, 
like  half  a kernel  of  rye,  but  much  smaller,  with  the  flat 
side  sticking  to  the  bark  of  the  tree.  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  of 
Albany,  gives  the  following  statement  of  ^is  mode  of 


INSKCTS. 


179 


destroying  them: — ‘‘In  June  last)  I observed  directions 
in  the  .New  England  Farmer  for  destroying  the  parasitic 
enemy;  and,  that  being  the  particular  time  to  make  the 
^ipplication,  \ immediately  set  about  it.  For  this  purpose^ 
I took  eight  parts  of  water  and  two  of  soft  soap,  and  mixed 
with  these  lime  enough  to  make  a thick  whitewash.  With 
a whitewash  and  paint  brush,  I put  this  upon  the  trunks 
and  limbs  of  trees,  as  high  as  was  practicable,  filling  the 
cracks  in  the  bark,  and  covering  the  whole  surface.  The 
effect  has  been  not  only  to  destroy  most  of  the  lice,  but  to 
give  the  trees  an  improved  and  vigorous  appearance.  The 
cuter  bark,  which,  from  a stinted  growth,  had  become 
rough  and  hard,  has,  in  a measure,  fallen  off  in  flakes,  and 
disclosed  a soft,  smooth  bark,  the  sure  indication  of  health.’^ 
E.  Perley,  Esq.  published  a description  of  this  insect  i» 
the  Mass,  Agr,  Repos,  vol.  iii.  p.  114,  and  says,  “The 
application  whicli  I have  found  most  effectual  is,  washing 
the  trees  with  lie  or  brine.”  * He  observes,  that  “ they 
resemble  blisters,  and  are  near  the  colour  of  the  bark  of 
the  tree.  These  blisters  contain  from  ten  to  thirty  nits  oi 
eggs  each,  in  form  like  a snake’s  egg;  which,  in  a common 
season,  begin  to  hatch  about  the  25th  of  May,  and  finish 
about  the  10th  of  June.  These  nits  produce  a white  animah 
cule,  resembling  a louse,  so  small,  that  they  are  hardly  per* 
ceptible  by  the  naked  eye ; which,  immediately  after  they 
are  hatched,  open  a passage  at  the  end  of  the  blister,  an(t 
crawl  out  on  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  there  remain,  with 
little  motion,  about  ten  days,  when  they  stick  themselves 
fast  to  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  die.  From  this  little  car- 
cass arises  a small  speck  of  him  mould.,  which  is  most  plain 
to  be  seen  between  the  10th  and  20th  of  June,  and  con- 
tinues about  fifteen  days,  and  then  gradually  wears  off 
until  the  old  carcass  appears,  which,  by  this  time,  is  formed 
into  a new  blister,  and  contains  the  spawns  or  nits  before- 
mentioned.  These  blisters  prevent  the  circulation  of  the 
sap,  and  prove  as  fatal  to  the  tree  as  the  canker-worm.” 

“ A correspondent  of  the  Caledonian  Horticultural  Society 
recommends  clay  paint  for  the  destruction  of  insects,  and 
the  mildew  on  fruit-trees.  The  instructions  are,  that  you 
take  a quantity  of  the  most  tenacious  brown  clay  that  can 
be  obtained ; diffuse  among  it  as  much  soft  water  as  will 
bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  cream  or  paint ; pass  it  through 
a fine  sieve,  so  that  it  may  be  made  perfectly  smooth  and 
unctuous,  and  freed  from  any  gritty  particles.  With  a 
painter’s  brush,  dipped  in  the  clay  paint,  go  carefully  over 


180 


INSECTS, 


Ihe  whole  tree,  not  excepting  the  young  shoots.  This 
layer,  when  it  becomes  dry,  forms  a hard  crust,  which, 
enveloping  the  insects  closely,  completely  destroys  them, 
without  doing  the  smallest  injury  either  to  the  bark  or 
ouds.” — Thacher^s  Orchardist,  Solutions  of  potash  and 
decoctions  of  tobacco  are  likewise  recommended. 

Apple-tree  borer. — Saperda  hivitata, — The  scientific 
description  of  this  very  pernicious  insect  is  thus  given  by 
Professor  Say,  of  Philadelphia  : — ‘‘  Hoary ; above,  light- 
brown,  with  two  broad,  white  fillets.  Inhabits  the  United 
States.  Bodj/y  white ; eyes^  fuscous ; a small  spot  on  the 
vertex,  and  another  behind  each  eye,  light-brown  ; antenncBy 
moderate,  slightly  tinged  with  bluish  ; thorax^  light-brown, 
with  two  oroad,  white  lines,  approaching  before ; elytray 
light  brown,  irregularly  punctured ; a broad,  white,  longi- 
tudinal line  on  each,  nearer  to  the  suture  than  to  the  outer 
edge.  Length,  from  one  half  to  seven  tenths  of  an  inch. 
A very  pretty  insect.  In  the  larvae  state,  it  is  very  injuri- 
ous to  the  apple-tree,  boring  into  the  wood.” — Journal  of 
the  Academy  of  ScienceSy  Phil,  vol.  Hi.  p.  409. 

Professor  Say,  in  a letter  to  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  says,  “ You 
state,  that  it  leaves  the  pupa,  and  becomes  perfect  in  the 
latter  part  of  April,  and  that  the  eggs  are  deposited  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  These  two  circumstances  ascer- 
tained, I would  recommend  the  application,  early  in  May, 
or  the  latter  part  of  April,  of  common  bricklayer’s  mortar, 
around  the  base  of  the  tree,  so  as  to  cover  completely  the 
part,  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  where  the  deposit  is  made. 
This  preventive  was  successfully  employed  by  Mr.  Shot- 
well,  against  the  attacks  of  the  peach-tree  insect,  (see 
American  Farmery  vol.  vi.  p.  14,)  and  I see  no  reason  why 
it  should  not  be  equally  efficacious  in  the  preservation  of 
the  apple-tree.” — Mem,  of  N,  Y,  Board  of  AgriculturOy 
vol.  Hi.  p.  479. 

The  Mass,  Agr,  Repos,  vol.  v.  p.  360,  contains  a paper 
on  this  insect,  by  John  Prince,  Esq.,  by  which  it  appears 
tnat  worms  of  this  kind  are  got  rid  of  by  ‘‘digging  round 
the  tree,  and  clearing  away  the  earth  to  the  roots,  and  then, 
with  a sharp-pointed  knife,  a chisel,  or  a gouge,  (and  a small 
wire  to  probe,  if  they  are  deep  in  the  tree,)  they  may  easi- 
ly be  destroyed.”  After  taking  out  the  worms,  the  wounds 
snould  be  covered  over  with  grafting-clay  and  a large  pro- 
portion of  dry  wood-ashes  mixed,  and  the  earth  then 
returned  to  the  tree.  The  process  for  cleansing  the  trees 
from  borers  should  be  performed  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as 


INSECTS.  181 

the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  or  at  least  before  the  month 
ot  June,  as  the  perfect  insect  escapes  before  that  time. 

Slug-worm,  or  naked  snail. — These  reptiles  appear  on 
the  leaves  of  fruit-trees  in  the  month  of  July.  Professor 
Peck  has  ascertained  that  they  are  the  progeny  of  a small 
black  lly,  which  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  leaf  in  the  months 
of  May  and  June.  They  may  be  destroyed  by  means  of 
lime,  sprinkled  over  the  leaves  in  the  form  of  powder. 
For  this  purpose,  a wooden  box,  of  convenient  size,  having 
ii&  bottom  perforated  with  numerous  small  holes,  is  to  be 
filled  with  lime.  This,  being  mounted  on  a pole,  and  sha- 
ken over  the  tree,  distributes  the  lime  among  the  leaves, 
and  the  slugs  are  immediately  destroyed.  The  labour  is 
very  trivial ; a man  may  cover  a large  tree  in  three  or  four 
minutes;  and  the  desired  effect  is  certain.  Fine  earth, 
shaken  through  a basket  or  perforated  box,  will  answer 
as  well. 

“ Another  remedy,  it  is  said,  will  prove  equally  effectual. 
It  is  a strong  infusion  of  tar,  made  by  pouring  water  on  tar, 
and  suffering  it  to  stand  two  or  three  days,  when  it  be- 
comes strongly  impregnated.  This,  if  sprinkled  over  tho 
leaves  by  means  of  an  engine,  will  kill  these  vermin  instan 
taneously.  A strong  decoction  of  tobacco  will  probably 
produce  the  desired  effect,  and  tanners^  bark,  put  round  the 
tree,  it  is  said,  will  have  a salutary  tendency  as  a prevent- 
ive.”— Thacherh  Orchardist. 

Forsyth  recommends  watering  the  ground,  where  these 
insects  are,  with  soap-suds  and  urine,  mixed  with  tobacco- 
water.  Ducks,  admitted  into  a garden,  will  destroy  all 
within  their  reach. 

Wire-worm,  or  Red-worm. — This  insect  is  slender,  and 
usually  about  an  inch  long,  with  a hard  coat,  and  a pointed 
head,  Mr.  William  Moody,  of  Saco,  (Maine,)  in  a com- 
munication to  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  published  in  Mass, 
Agr,  Repos,  vol.  iv.  p.  353,  observes,  I am  persuaded, 
from  experience,  that  sea-sand,  put  under  corn  or  potatoes 
with  manure,  or  spread  on  the  land,  will  go  far,  if  not 
wholly,  to  the  total  destruction  of  these  destructive  worms, 
on  which  nothing  else  seems  to  have  any  effect.  It  has  a 
beneficial  effect  spread  on  land  before  ploughing,  or  even 
after  land  is  planted  with  corn  or  potatoes,  not  only  to  de- 
stroy the  wire-worm  and  other  insects,  but  to  increase  the 
crop.  With  my  neighbours  a load  of  sea-sand  is  considered 
as  preferable  to  a load  of  the  best  manure,  to  mix  in  wdth 
16 


182 


JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. 


their  common  bam-manure,  or  to  spread  on  their  gardener 
and  low  flat  land.” 

Probably  sea-mud  or  sea-water  would  produce  good  ef- 
fects as  preservatives  against  this  and  other  insects. 

A correspondent  of  the  New  England  Farmer^  vol.  iv.  p. 
284,  recommends,  from  actual  experiment,  the  soaking  of 
seed-corn  in  a solution  of  copperas^  to  preserve  it  against 
the  wire-worm,  other  insects,  and  birds.  He  says,  “ The 
plan  which  I pursued  was  as  follows  : — I used  about  one 
and  a half  pound  of  copperas  in  three  pecks  of  corn. 
I made  the  water  warm,  and  soaked  the  corn  full  forty-eight 
hours  before  planting,  putting  in  corn  and  copperas  as  we 
used  it  out.  It  is  not  easy  to  use  too  much  copperas ; I 
believe  the  more  the  better.”  This  method  has  been  fre- 
quently and  successfully  put  in  practice.  See  N.  E.  Far- 
mer^ vol.  V.  p.  310. 

The  Striped  bug,  or  Yellow  ply. — This  is  a small  in- 
sect of  the  coleoptera  order,  or  such  as  have  crustaceous 
elytra^  or  wing  cases,  like  the  beetle.  The  elytra  of  this 
bug  are  striped  with  yellow  and  black.  They  prey  on  the 
young  plants  of  cucumbers,  melons,  squashes,  and  others 
of  the  CMCurbitacecB  species.  “ These  insects  may  be  consid- 
erably thinned  by  killing  them  in  a dewy  morning,  when 
they  have  not  the  free  use  of  their  wings,  and  cannot  well 
escape.  But  nothing  that  I have  tried  has  proved  so  effec- 
tual as  sifting  or  sprinkling  powdered  soot  upon  the  plants 
when  the  morning  dew  remains  on  them.  This  forms  a 
bitter  covering  for  the  plants,  which  the  bugs  cannot  en- 
dure the  taste  of.” — Deane,  “We  would  recommend 

sprinkling  the  plants  with  a little  sulphur  or  Scotch  snuff.” 
— Farmer^s  Assistant,  But  the  surest  defence  against  these 
insects  is,  enclosing  the  plants  with  a frame,  and  a muslin 
or  gauze  covering,  as  recommended  page  91^ 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. — Helianthus  tuherosus, 
— The  Jerusalem  artichoke  is  a hardy  perennial,  a native 
of  Brazil,  and  is  of  the  same  genus  as  the  sun-flower.  It 
is  propagated  and  cultivated  like  the  potato.  We  have 
been  informed  that  this  root  will  grow  and  produce  a 
profitable  crop  on  poor  land,'  and  without  manure  ; though, 
with  deep  ploughing  and  good  manuring,  its  culture  would 
probably  be  attended  with  greater  profit.  It  was  much 
esteemed  before  potatoes  were  known.  The  epithet 
Jerusalem  is  a corruption  of  the  Italian  word  Girasole 
(from  girarey  to  turn,  and  sol)  or  sun-flower ; the  name  ar/i- 


JEllUSALr.M  ARTICHOKE. 


183 


choke  is  bestowed  from  the  resemblance  in  flavour,  which 
the  roots  have  to  the  bottoms  of  artichokes.  It  is  superior 
to  the  potato  in  being  more  hardy,  and  not  liable  to  be  in- 
juied  by  frost;  but  we  believe  it  contains  somewhat  less 
nutritive  matter.  Its  tops  are  large,  and  may  make  a valua- 
ble addition  to  the  farm-yard,  of  a substance  which  may 
be  converted  into  manure.  From  the  circumstances  of  its 
flourishing  in  a poor  soil,  and  producing  large  leaves  and 
stalks,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  derives  much  food  for 
plants  from  the  atmosphere,  which  by  its  decay  is  impart- 
ed to  the  soil  on  which  it  grows,  or  on  which,  after  rotting, 
it  is  spread  as  manure.  There  is  no  plant  which  more 
completely  shades  the  ground,  and  it  must  in  that  way  en- 
rich it.  It  will  flourish  in  the  shade  of  trees,  buildings, 
&c.  where  other  plants  will  not  thrive.  We  believe  there 
are  thousands  of  acres  of  land  in  the  more  populous  parts 
of  the  United  States,  which  are  now  considered  as  not 
worth  cultivation,  which  would  produce  considerable  quan- 
tities of  the  Jerusalem  artichoke,  with  no  other  trouble 
than  once  planting,  and  digging  the  roots  from  time  to  time 
as  they  are  wanted. 

Dr.  Darwin  says  that  the  Jerusalem  artichoke  will  not 
ripen  its  seeds  in  Great  Britain,  (and  we  do  not  believe  it 
will  in  New  England,)  by  being  suffered  to  grow  in  the 
open  air  under  ordinary  cultivation.  But  by  forcing  the 
plant  in  pots,  hot-houses,  &c.,  perhaps  seeds  might  be 
obtained.  This  would,  probably,  be  desirable,  for  it  is 
supposed  that  all  plants  degenerate  if  propagated  merely 
by  slips,  roots,  cuttings,  &c.,  without  having  recourse  to 
seeds.  Potatoes  should  be  renewed  from  the  seed,  at  least 
once  in  twelve  or  fourteen  years,  or  they  will  degenerate ; 
and  probably  Jerusalem  artichokes  might  become  more 
valuable  by  the  same  means.  Planting  large  and  fair  roots, 
with  suitable  soil  and  culture,  will  retard  this  degeneracy, 
but,  we  believe,  not  wholly  prevent  it. 

“ Use, — The  roots  are  esteemed  a wholesome,  nutritious 
food,  and  are  eaten  boiled,  mashed  with  butter,  or  baked 
in  pies,  and  have  an  excellent  flavour.  Planted  in  rows 
from  east  to  west,  the  upright  herb  of  the  plant  affords  a 
salutary  shade  to  such  culinary  vegetables  as  require  it  in 
the  mid-summer  months,  as  lettuce,  turnips,  strawberries, 
&c.” — Loudon, 

The  second  volume  of  Memoirs  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Agriculture  contains  remarks  on  this  root  by  Levi  McKean, 
of  Dutchess,  in  which  he  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  arti- 


184  LANDSCAPES  AND  PICTURESQ,UE  GARDENS, 

chokes  are  the  best  suited  for  cultivation  in  this  climate  as  a 
crop  for  hogSj  sheep,  and  dairies,  of  any  article  that  we  have 
yet  tried  ; and,  besides  the  use  of  this  crop  for  stock,  which 
many  writers  consider  to  he  equal  to  potatoes,  they  are  also 
recommended  highly  as  an  article  of  human  diet.  It  is  true 
that,  when  boiled,  they  do  not  possess  that  peculiar  farina- 
ceous quality,  that  is  so  much  esteemed  in  the  best  sorts 
of  potatoes ; but  it  is  said  that,  when  roasted,  they  are  a 
very  delicate  article  for  the  table,  their  taste  then  resembling 
the  ground-nut  of  this  country. 

The  only  objection  we  have  heard  stated  to  this  vegeta- 
ble as  an  article  of  field-culture  is,  that,  when  once  suffered 
to  enter,  it  will  take  exclusive  possession  of  a soil ; and 
thus,  when  a change  of  crops  is  desired,  becomes  a most 
troublesome  weed.  But  by  turning  in  a sufficient  number 
of  hogs,  the  artichokes  may  be  entirely  eradicated ; and, 
probably,  a poor  soil,  which  would  answer  no  other  pur- 
pose of  culture,  might  be  planted  with  the  Jerusalem 
artichoke,  and  converted  into  a permanent  pasture  for 
swine.  If  not  overstocked  with  the  animals,  the  plants 
would  keep  po«»session  of  the  soil,  which  they  would  meli- 
orate ; and  when  it  should  be  wished  to  change  the  crop, 
turn  in  hogs  enough  to  root  out  the  artichokes. 

LANDSCAPES  and  PICTURESQUE  GARDENS.— 
The  following  article  was  written  expressly  for  this  work, 
by  Mr.  A'.  Parmentier,  of  New  York,  a French  horticultur- 
ist of  much  taste  and  science  : — 

It  has  been  reserved  for  the  good  taste  of  our  age  to 
make  many  advantageous  changes  in  the  embellishment 
of  gardens,  and  to  reinstate  Nature  in  the  possession  of 
those  rights  from  which  she  has  too  long  been  banished 
by  an  undue  regard  to  symmetry. 

Our  ancestors  gave  to  every  part  of  a garden  all  the  ex- 
actness of  geometric  fornfs  : they  seem  to  have  known  of 
no  other  way  to  plant  trees,  except  in  straight  lines ; a sys- 
tem totally  ruinous  to  the  beauty  of  the  prospect.  We 
now  see  how  ridiculous  it  was,  except  in  the  public  gar- 
dens of  the  city,  to  apply  the  rules  of  architecture  to  the 
embellishment  of  gardens. 

The  majestic  trunk  is  now  allowed  the  liberty  of  dis- 
playing its  form,  or  of  following  in  its  vigorous  shoots  the 
plan  of  nature.  Gardens  are  now^  treated  like  landscapes, 
the  charms  of  which  are  not  to  be  improved  by  any  rules 
of  art. 

The  advantages  of  these  changes  are  so  manifest,  and 


LANDSCAl'ES  AND  IMCTUllESttCJE  CAKDEN)i;,  185 

SO  well  appreciated,  that  further  proofs  seem  unnecessary. 
For  where  can  we  find  an  individual,  sensible  to  the  beau- 
ties and  charms  of  nature,  who  would  prefer  a symmetric 
garden  to  one  in  modern  taste  ; who  would  not  prefer  to 
walk  in  a plantation  irregular  and  picturesque,  rather  than 
in  those  straight  and  monotonous  alleys,  bordered  with 
mournful  box,  the  resort  of  noxious  insects  ? 

Where  is  the  person,  gifted  with  any  taste,  who  wmuld 
not  choose  those  alleys  that  wind  without  constraint,  in 
preference  to  those  dull  straight  lines  which  can  be  meas- 
ured by  one  glance  of  the  eye,  and  the  monotony  of  which 
is  unvaried  ? Instead  of  this,  the  modern  style  presents  to 
you  a constant  change  of  scene,  perfectly  in  accordance 
with  the  desires  of  a man  who  loves,  as  he  continues  his 
walk,  to  have  new  objects  laid  open  to  his  view.  To  un- 
derstand this  style  of  a garden  requires  a quick  perception 
of  the  beauties  of  a landscape,  without  which  the  existing 
plantation  might  be  destroyed,  instead  of  being  used. 
Limited  prospects,  and  neighbouring  houses  and  buildings 
not  worthy  of  notice,  should  be  concealed,  and  the  view 
left  open  to  those  objects  which  strike  the  eye  of  the  be- 
holder agreeably.  The  front  of  the  house  ought  always  to 
be  uncovered^  the  principal  point  of  view  seen,  or  conjec- 
tured. A vast  idea  of  the  proprietor  should  be  given,  and 
this  can  only  be  done  by  a grand  plan,  in  which  nothing 
niggardly  is  to  be  seen. 

Rows  of  trees  should  never  be  planted  in  front  of  the 
house,  particularly  when  the  house  has  been  built  in  good 
taste,  and  at  great  expense.  It  may  be  objected  to  this, 
that  the  shade  is  wanted,  and  this  I Would  not  exclude ; 
but,  instead  of  one  row  in  front,  I would  plant  thick  groups 
of  trees  on  the  three  other  sides,  and  leave  the  front  open 
to  public  view ; otherwise  the  taste  and  expense  are,,  in  a 
great  measure,  thrown  away. 

When  you  choose  the  situation  of  a country-house,  let 
it  be  at  some  distance  from  the  public  road,  so  that  the 
road  which  leads  to  it  may  give  a good  idea  of  the  extent 
of  the  proprietor’s  domains,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  road  is  proportioned  to  this  extent.  It  ought  to  be^ 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  wide,  so  that  carriages  may  pass,  and, 
gently  serpentine.  This  winding  should  have  a reasoQ-rr!. 
that  is  to  say — some  groups  of  trees  should  be  so  placed:  as: 
to  appear  to  be  the  cause  of  it : for  naturally  the  road  would 
have  led  directly  to  the  house,  but  the  person  walking,  when 
he  observes  these  groups  of  trees,  will  see  at  cmce  why 
16 


186  LANDSCAPES  AND  PICTURESQUE  GARDENS, 

does  not.  Besides,  he  will  be  agreeably  amused  by  the 
variety  of  views  which  will  show  to  advantage  the  manner 
in  which  the  artist  has  executed  his  plan,  and  the  choice 
he  has  made  of  a situation. 

If  the  house  is  placed  on  an  eminence  or  side-hill,  the 
prospect  will  be  much  more  beautiful  if  you  can  enjoy 
the  view  of  water : and,  to  add  to  the  whole  effect,  and 
facilitate  the  labours  of  the  artist,  it  is  desirable  that  a grass- 
plot  should  naturally  present  itself. 

The  plantations  and  groups  of  trees  near  the  house 
should  be,  if  possible,  of  a deeper  green; — they  would 
extend  the  view  and  the  perspective,  and  produce  the  ef- 
fect of  shades  in  a landscape-picture,  where  the  groups  of 
trees  in  front  are  of  a darker  shade,  and  seem  to  remove 
the  perspective  from  the  extremity  of  the  landscape.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  trees  at  the  farther  part  of  a park,  or 
garden,  should  be  those  of  a thin  and  light  foliage. 

Plantations  should  consist  of,  besides  merely  ornamental 
trees,  those  fruit-trees  which  are  high  and  of  bright  foliage. 
Their  flowers  in  spring,  and  branches  loaded  with  fruit  in 
autumn,  make  them  objects  of  great  beauty  and  interest. 

The  apple-tree  alone,  on  account  of  its  horizontal 
branches,  should  be  confined  to  the  orchard,  where  its 
useful  products  are  ornamental  and  valuable.  The  most 
should  be  made  of  the  agreeable  and  interesting  views 
which  may  be  had  in  the  neighbouring  landscape.  They 
may  be  made  useful  to  the  general  plan  by  being  represent- 
ed as  the  property  of  the  proprietor. 

For  this  reason,  I highly  approve  of  blind  fences,  and 
live  hedges.  But  fences,  necessary  as  enclosures,  should 
be  concealed  so  as  not  to  appear  as  boundaries  to  the  es- 
tablishment, and  present  to  the  eye  a disagreeable  inter- 
ruption in  the  prospect.  The  judicious  use  of  hermitages, 
arbours,  cottages  and  rotundas  will  add  to  the  effect,  in 
picturesque  gardens  and  ornamented  farms.  If  you  use 
these  ornaments,  place  the  hermitage  in  some  retired  spot : 
a small  rivulet  would  be  an  appropriate  and  beautiful  ac- 
companiment. The  rustic  arbour  and  cottage  may  occupy 
a place  less  secluded.  An  elegant  rotunda  should  be  seen 
from  a distance,  and  on  a hill  or  eminence.  It  should 
make  a part  of  the  establishment  of  a wealthy  man,  as  well 
as  pagoda«  turrets,  and  Chinese  towers.  These  ornaments 
are  so  expensive,  that  they  are  beyond  the  means  of  most 
peisons : but  hermitages,  arbours  and  cottages  may  generally 
be  afforded,  as  there  is  little  expense  in  their  construction. 


LAVENDER, 


187 


Rustic  bridges  are  very  pretty  where  there  is  a streum, 
and  they  can  be  made  of  use ; but  they  have  no  preten- 
sions as  mere  accompaniments  to  a plantation.  Obelisks, 
columns,  &c.  should  be  placed  on  elevated  places. 

As  to  tombs  and  cemeteries,  I should  wish  to  banish  them 
entirely  from  gardens.  They  always  awaken  melancholy 
reflections  in  old  people,  for  they  remind  them  of  their  ap- 
proaching end  ; and  a regard  for  their  feelings  should,  I 
think,  exclude  from  their  places  of  resort  every  object 
which  could  have  such  an  effect. 

Whilst  on  this  subject,  I will  mention  an  anecdote  of  the 
celebrated  Kent,  architect  of  the  English  gardens,  which 
will  show  to  what  extent  this  mania  may  be  carried.  He 
built  a tomb  in  a park,  and,  to  make  the  place  still  more 
gloomy,  planted  around  it  dead  and  mutilated  trees ; but, 
notwithstanding  the  celebrity  he  had  acquired,  he  was 
loaded  with  ridicule,  and  forced  to  displace  the  trees. 

LAVENDER. — Lavandula  spica. — The  lavender  is  a 
hardy  under  shrub,  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe.  The 
plant  rises  two  to  four  feet  in  height,  with  hoary,  linear  leaves, 
slightly  rolled  back  at  the  edges  : the  flowers  form  terminat- 
ing spikes  of  a blue  colour^  and  appear  from  July  to  Septem- 
ber. The  leaves  and  flowers  are  powerfully  aromatic. 

“ Propagation  and  culture, — It  is  propagated  by  cuttings 
and  slips,  like  rosemary ; it  likes  a dry  soil,  and  may  be 
planted  either  in  distinct  plants,  two  feet  asunder,  or  to  form 
a sort  of  hedge  row,  in  one  or  more  lines,  especially  where 
large  supplies  of  flowers  are  required  for  distilling.  The 
plants  will  advance  in  a close,  branchy  growth,  from  a foot 
and  a half  to  two  feet  high,  or  more  ; and,  when  estab- 
lished, will  produce  plenty  of  flowers  in  July  and  August. 
Gather  them  while  in  perfection,  cutting  the  spikes  off  close 
to  the  stem.  Then  give  the  plants  occasional  trimming, 
cutting  off  the  gross  and  rampant  shoots  of  the  year,  and 
the  decayed  flower-spikes.’’  Neill  observes,  If  lavender 
be  planted  in  a dry,  gravelly,  or  poor  soil,  its  flowers  have 
a powerful  odour,  and  the  severity  of  our  winters  has  little 
effect  on  it ; while,  in  a rich  garden  soil,  though  it  grows 
strongly,  it  is  apt  to  be  killed,  and  the  flowers  have  less 
perfume.” 

Use, — It  is  rather  a medicinal  plant  than  one  used  in 
cookery ; though  a few  plants  are  kept  in  every  garden. 
Imitation  scent-bottles  are  made,  by  the  ladies,  of  its  fra- 
grant spikes.  They  are  also  put  in  paper  bags,  and  placed 
among  linen  to  perfume  it.  Lavender-water,  a well-known 


188 


LAYERS. LEAVES. 


perfume,  is  distilled  from  the  flowers ; for  which  purpose  the 
plant  is  extensively  cultivated  in  different  places.” — Loudon. 

LAYERS. — Layers,  in  horticulture,  denote  certain  ten- 
der shoots  or  sprigs  of  trees,  which  are  buried  in  the  ground 
till  they  have  taken  root,  when  they  are  separated  from 
the  parent  stock,  and  become  distinct  plants.  The  opera- 
tion of  layering  should  be  commenced  before  the  ascent  of 
the  sap,  or  delayed  till  the  sap  is  fully  up,  to  wit,  early  in 
spring,  or  in  mid-summer.  The  shoot  intended  to  be- 
come a new  plant,  is  half  separated  from  the  parent  plant, 
at  a few  inches  from  its  extremity.  If  the  cut  or  notch 
does  not  penetrate  at  least  half  way  through,  some  sorts  of 
trees  will  not  form  a nucleus  the  first  season ; on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  notch  be  cut  nearly  through  the  shoot,  a sufii- 
ciency  of  alburnum,  or  sap-wood,  is  not  left  for  the  ascent 
of  the  sap,  and  the  shoot  dies.  In  delicate  sorts,  it  is  not 
sufiicient  to  cut  a notch  merely,  because,  in  that  case,  the 
descending  sap,  instead  of  throwing  out  granulated  matter, 
in  the  upper  side  of  the  wound,  would  descend  by  the  entire 
side  of  the  shoot ; therefore,  besides  a notch  formed  by  cut- 
ting out  a portion  of  bark  and  wood,  the  notched  side  is  slit 
up  at  least  one  inch,  separating  it  by  a bit  of  twig,  or  small 
splinter  of  stone  or  potsherd. 

Mr.  Armstrong  says,  [Mem.  of  N.  Y.  Board  of  Agr.  vol. 
iii.  p.  15,)  “ This  mode  was  probably  suggested  by  observ- 
ing the  habits  peculiar  to  some  trees  and  shrubs,  (as  the 
laurel  and  the  currant,)  of  pointing  their  branches  to  the 
earth ; where,  finding  an  habitual  moisture,  they  strike 
root,  and  become  distinct  plants.  In  imitating  this  natural 
process,  the  artist  notches  the  lower  side  of  the  branch, 
buries  this  in  the  earth,  three  or  four  inches  deep,  and 
keeps  it  down  by  a wooden  crotchet.  As  this  is  done 
before  the  descent  of  the  sap,  the  notch  operates  like  a dam 
or  obstruction  to  the  descending  juices,  and  forces  them 
into  a bulbous  form,  and  granular  substance,  whence  are 
emitted  a mass  of  roots,  necessary  to  the  infant  plant.  When 
these  are  sufficiently  formed,  that  part  of  the  branch  which 
binds  them  to  the  stem  is  severed,  and  the  layer  taken  up 
and  transplanted.”  For  further  particulars  respecting  the 
manipulation,  &c.,  in  this  mode  of  propagation,  see  Encyc. 
of  Gardening^  pp.  388,  389. 

LEAVES. — The  leaves  of  trees,  particularly  of  oak,  may 
be  employed  ad"  intageously  to  form  hot-beds.  Speechly, 
an  eminent  English  gardener,  gives  the  following  account 
of  his  mode  of  using  them  : — 


LEAVES, 


189 


“ After  being  raked  into  heaps,  they  should  immediately 
be  carried  to  some  place  near  the  hot-house,  where  they 
must  lie  to  couch.  I generally  fence  them  round  with 
charcoal  hurdles,  or  any  thing  else,  to  keep  them  from 
being  blown  about  the  garden  in  windy  weather.  In  this 
place  we  tread  them  well,  and  water  them,  in  case  they  hap- 
pen to  have  been  brought  in  dry.  We  make  the  heap  six  or 
seven  feet  in  thickness,  covering  it  over  with  old  mats,  or 
any  thing  else,  to  prevent  the  upper  leaves  from  being 
blown  away.  In  a few  days  the  heap  will  come  to  a strong 
heat.  For  the  first  year  or  two  that  I used  these  leaves,  1 
did  not  continue  them  in  the  heap  longer  than  ten  days  or 
a fortnight ; but  in  this  I discovered  a considerable  incon- 
venience, as  they  settled  so  much,  when  got  into  the  hot- 
house, as  soon  to  require  a supply.  Taught  by  experience, 
I now  let  them  remain  in  the  heap  for  five  or  six  weeks, 
by  which  time  they  are  properly  prepared  for  the  hot-house. 
In  getting  them  into  the  pine  pits,  if  they  appear  dry,  we 
water  them  again,  treading  them  in  layers  exceedingly 
well,  till  the  pits  are  quite  full.  We  then  cover  the  whole 
with  tan,  to  the  thickness  of  two  inches,  and  tread  it  well, 
till  the  surface  becomes  smooth  and  even.  On  this  we  place 
the  pine  pots,  in  the  manner  they  are  to  stand,  beginning 
with  the  middle  row  first,  and  filling  up  the  spaces  between 
the  pots  with  tan.  In  like  maimer  we  proceed  to  the  next 
row,  till  the  whole  is  finished ; and  this  operation  is  per- 
formed in  the  same  manner  as  when  tan  only  is  used. 

‘‘  Thus  prepared,  they  will  continue  a constant  and  regular 
heat  for  twelve  months,  without  either  stirring  or  turning ; 
and,  if  I may  form  a judgment  from  their  appearance  when 
taken  out,  (being  always  entire  and  perfect,)  it  is  probable 
they  would  continue  their  heat  through  a second  year.” 
After  some  further  details,  the  same  writer  observes,  I 
believe  that  oak  leaves  are  preferable  to  those  of  any  other 
sort ; but  I have  found,  by  repeated  trials,  that  the  leaves 
of  beech,  Spanish  chestnut,  and  hornbeam,  will  answer  the 
purpose  very  well.  It  seems  that  all  leaves  of  a hard  and 
firm  texture  are  very  proper ; but  soft  leaves,  that  soon  de- 
cay, such  as  lime,  sycamore,  ash,  and  those  of  fruit-trees  in 
general,  are  very  unfit  for  this  mode  of  practice.” 

The  superiority  of  oak  leaves  as  a material  for  hot-beds, 
according  to  this  writer,  consists  in  the  following  particu- 
lars : — ‘‘  They  always  heat  regularly ; for,  during  the  whole 
time  that  I have  used  them,  which  is  near  twenty-five 
years,  I never  once  knew  their  heating  with  violence.” 


190 


LEEK. 


The  heat  of  oak  leaves  is  constant ; whereas  tanners’  bark 
generally  turns  cold  in  a very  short  time,  after  its  furious  heat 
is  gone  oif.”  ‘‘There  is  a saving  in  point  of  expense; 
and  decayed  leaves  make  good  manure ; whereas,  rotten 
tan  is  experimentally  found  to  be  of  no  value.” 

“ Leaves  mixed  with  dung,”  says  Loudon,  “ make  excel- 
lent hot-beds  ; and  beds  compounded  in  this  manner  pre- 
serve their  heat  much  longer  than  when  made  entirely  with 
dung.  In  both  cases,  the  application  of  leaves  will  be  a 
considerable  saving  of  dung,”  &c. 

LEEK. — Allium  porrum. — The  leek  is  a hardy  biennial, 
a native  of  Switzerland.  The  stem  risei^three  feet,  and  is 
leafy  at  bottom  ; the  leaves  an  inch  wide. 

The  varieties  are. 


The  narrow-leaved,  or  Flanders 
leekj 

The  Scotch,  or  flag,  or  Mussel- 


burgh leek ; 

The  broad-leaved,  or  tall,  London 
leek. 


Propagation, — “ From  seed ; and,  for  a bed  four  feet  wide 
by  eight  in  length,  one  ounce  is  requisite.” 

Soil  and  site, — “ The  soil  should  be  light  and  rich,  lying 
on  a dry  sub-soil.  A rank  soil  does  not  suit  it,  so  that, 
when  manure  is  necessary,  well  reduced  dung,  mixed  with 
road  drift,  is  better  than  dung  alone.  The  situation  should 
be  open.  Let  the  ground  be  dug  in  the  previous  autumn, 
ready  for  sowing  in  the  spring.  For  the  principal  crop 
allot  beds  four  or  five  feet  wide,  and  sow  in  drills,  about  six- 
teen inches  apart.  A small  crop  may  be  sown  thinly  with 
a main  crop  of  onions,  and  when  the  latter  are  drawn  off, 
the  leeks  will  have  room  for  full  growth.” 

Times  of  sowing. — “ A small  first  crop  may  be  sown  as 
soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough,  and  the  weather  suffi- 
ciently mild  in  the  spring.  The  principal  crop  should  be 
sown  the  last  of  April  or  the  beginning  of  May.” 

Course  of  culture. — “ When  the  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high,  weed  them  clean,  and  thin  them  where  too 
much  crowded.  Water  well  in  dry,  hot  weather.  The 
leek  is  much  improved  in  size  by  transplanting ; and  those 
designed  for  that  purpose  will  be  fit  to  remove  when  from 
six  to  ten  inches  high.  For  this  purpose,  take  out  a quan- 
tity, regularly,  from  the  seed-bed,  either  in  showery 
weather,  or  after  watering  the  ground.  Trim  the  long, 
weak  tops  of  the  leaves,  and  the  roots  and  fibres,  and  plant 
them  by  dibble,  in  rows,  from  nine  to  twelve  inches  asunder, 
by  six  or  eight  inches  in  the  row,  inserting  them  nearly  down 
to  the  leaves,  or  with  the  neck  part  mostly  into  the  ground, 


LETTUCE* 


191 


to  whiten  it  a proportionate  length.  Press  the  earth  to  the 
fibres  with  the  dibber,  but  leave  the  stem  as  loose  as  pos- 
sible, and,  as  it  were,  standing  in  the  centre  of  a hollow 
cylinder.  Give  water  if  the  weather  be  dry.  Those  re- 
maining in  the  seed-bed  thin  to  six  or  eight  inches  distance. 
Keep  the  whole  clear  from  weeds.  In  hoeing,  loosen  the 
ground  about  the  plants,  to  promote  their  free,  vigorous 
growth.  Some  plant  in  hollow  drills,  and  earth  up,  as  in 
celery  culture,  which  produces  very  large  stems.” 

To  save  seed. — “ Transplant  some  best,  full  plants,  early 
in  the  spring,  in  a sunny  situation,  or  in  a row  near  a south 
fence.  They  will  shoot  in  summer,  in  single,  tall  seed- 
stalks.  Support  them^  as  necessary,  with  stakes ; and  they 
will  produce  ripe  seed  in  September.  Cut  the  ripe  heads 
with  part  of  the  stalk  to  each  ; tie  two  or  three  together, 
and  hang  up  under  cover,  to  dry  and  harden  the  seed 
thoroughly,  when  it  may  be  rubbed  out,  cleaned,  and  put 
by  for  future  service.” — Abercrombie, 

Use, — “ The  whole  plant  is  used  in  soups  and  stews  ; but 
the  blanched  stem  is  most  esteemed.  Leeks  formerly  con^^* 
stituted  an  ingredient  in  the  dish  called  which  some 

suppose  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  jporrwm.” — Loudon, 
The  leaves  of  this  plant  possess  a flavour  similar  to  that 
of  onions ; affording  a constant  dish  at  the  table  of  the 
Egyptians,  who  chop  them  up  small,  and  eat  them  with 
their  meat.  They  are  also  in  great  esteem  among  the 
Welsh  ; and  their  general  utility,  as  a wholesome  pot-herb^ 
renders  them  a valuable  culinary  spice. ”-^TFi7/icA. 

LETTUCE. — Lactuca  saliva, — Lettuce  is  a hardy,  an- 
nual plant,  introduced  or  cultivated  in  England  in  1562^ 
but  from  what  quarter  is  not  known. 

Varieties, — These  are  very  numerous ; and,  from  their 
names,  many  of  them  appear  to  have  come  originally  from 
the  Greek  Islands,  and  the  coast  of  the  Levant.  Those 
mentioned  in  Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  are. 


Early  curled  Silesia, 

Large  green-head,  or  cabbage, 
Royal  cape,  [superior  qualiiy,) 
India  Lettuce,  (Jine,) 

Imperial  cabbage. 

Hardy  ^een. 

Brown  Dutch  cabbage, 


Grand  admiral,  [large, fine  cabbage,) 
Tennis-ball,  or  rose. 

Magnum  bonum  Cos, 

Brighton  Cos, 

Ice  Cos, 

White  Cos,  or  loaf, 

Green  Cos. 


Estimate  of  sorts, — The  cabbage  lettuces  are  round-leaved, 
growing  in  a compact,  full  head,  of  squat  form,  close  to  the 
ground.  All  the  Cos  lettuces,  in  their  general  growth,  are 
more  or  less  upright,  of  an  oblong  shape.  Both  kinds  have 


192 


LETTUCE. 


white,  close,  firm  heads,  when  in  perfection ; the  varieties 
reach  maturity  from  June  till  September.  Meanwhile,  they 
are  occasionally  used  in  young,  open  growth.  In  a very 
young  state,  the  cabbage-lettuces  have  a milder,  more  agree- 
able taste  than  the  Cos ; but  when  both  classes  are  full 
grown,  the  flavour  of  the  Cos  is  preferred  for  salads,  while 
the  cabbage  kinds  are  more  used  for  soups. 

Propagation. — From  seed,  of  which,  for  a seed-bed  four  feet 
wide  by  ten  feet  in  length,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  is  sufficient, 
and  will  produce  upwards  of  four  hundred  plants. 

Soil  and  situation. — “ All  the  sorts  grow  freely  on  any 
rich,  mellow  soil,  where  the  sub-soil  is  dry.  For  the  most 
part,  raise  this  vegetable  as  a principal  crop,  on  beds  set 
apart  for  it,  'and  keep  the  varieties  separate ; but  to  multi- 
ply the  supplies  throughout  summer,  portions  may  be  sown, 
thinly  intermixed  with  principal  crops  of  leeks,  onions,  car- 
rots, and  spinnage,  which  will  come  off  before  the  lettuces 
are  full  grown ; also  with  any  young  perennials,  which 
stand  at  wide  intervals.” 

Times  of  sowing. — To  obtain  a constant  supply  of  good 
lettuce,  it  is  serviceable  to  sow  every  month,  from  February 
(or  the  opening  of  spring)  to  July,  for  the  main  summer 
and  autumn  crops.  For  late  autumn  crops,  you  may  sow 
.a  August,  and  if  you  have  hot-beds,  frames,  &c.  you  may 
sow  in  September,  and  so  on,  through  the  fall  and  winter. 
Early  spring  lettuce  may  be  sowed  so  late  in  the  fall  as  not 
to  come  up  till  spring. 

Process  of  sowing. — Abercrombie  says,  The  groundl 
should  have  been  broken  in  the  previous  digging.  Sow 
oroad-cast, moderately  thin;  rake  in  lightly,  and  very  even.” 
Others  direct  to  sow  in  drills,  from  a foot  to  sixteen  inches 
apart.  Armstrong  observes,  that  the  straight-leafed  sort 
is  best  cultivated  in  broad-cast,  and  does  not  require  trans- 
planting ; but  that  the  curled  and  head-lettuce  cannot  suc- 
ceed without  it.” 

Management  of  the  summer  crop. — In  the  successive 
crops,  raised  from  the  opening  of  spring  till  the  close  of 
summer,  when  the  plants  reach  about  two,  three,  or  four 
inches’  growth,  they  should  be  thinned ; of  those  removed, 
let  a requisite  number  be  planted  out,  from  a foot  to  fifteen 
inches  asunder,  to  remain  for  cabbaging.  Such  as  continue 
in  the  seed-beds  may  be  either  gathered  thinningly,  in  pro- 
gressive stages,  till  the  final  reserve  advance  in  close-head- 
ing; or,  as  they  increase  in  size,  be  planted  out  at  the 
square  distance  mentioned  above,  especially  those  designed 


LOCUST-TREE, 


193 


to  stand  till  of  stocky  growth.  In  dry  weather,  water  well 
at  transplanting;  also  weed  and  hoe  the  beds  thinned, 
and  water  them,  if  necessary.  In  the  first  heading-crop  of 
Cos  lettuces,  when  about  three  parts  grown,  and  beginning 
to  close  the  inner  leaves,  a number  may  be  forwarded  in 
cabbaging,  by  tying  the  leaves  together,  moderately  close, 
with  strings  of  bass ; the  remainder  will  head  and  whiten 
in  due  time,  without  this  assistance. 

Crop  raised  on  heat, — “ For  an  accelerated  crop,  some 
may  be  sown  in  the  beginning  or  middle  of  February,  on  a 
gentle  hot-bed.  When  the  plants  are  one  or  two  inches 
high,  in  March  or  April,  prick  a portion  either  into  a warm 
border,  if  a mild  season,  and  let  them  be  shielded  with 
mats,  during  nights  and  bad  weather ; or  into  a frame  or 
slender  hot-bed,  to  bring  them  more  forward.  According 
to  their  progress  in  April  or  May,  transplant  them  into  the 
open  garden,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  to  remain 
for  heading.” 

To  save  seed, — “ Leave  or  transplant  either  some  of  the 
early  winter-standing  plants,  in  March  or  Aprily  or  of  the 
forwardest  spring-sown  crops,  in  May,  or  the  beginning  of 
June,  fifteen  inches  asunder.  They  will  produce  ripe  seed 
in  August  or  September.” — Abercrombie^ 

Use, — The  use  of  lettuce,  as  a cooling  and  agreeable 
salad,  is  well  known  ; it  is  also  a useful  ingredient  in  soups. 
It  has  medical  properties,  similar  to  those  of  opium.  The 
refuse  leaves  are  said  to  be  good  food  for  geese,  ducks,  and 
swine. 

LOCUST-TREE. — Robinia  pseudo-acacia, — This  tree 
is  a native  of  the  United  States. 

Method  of  cultivation, — It  is  capable  of  being  raised 
from  the  seed,  cuttings,  layers  and  suckers ; but  the  seed 
method  is  said  to  afford  the  best  plants.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  about  the  end  of  March,  or  beginning  of  the  fol- 
lowing month,  on  a bed  of  light  mould,  being  covered  to  the 
depth  of  about  half  an  inch.  The  plants  usually  appear  in 
the  course  of  six  or  eight  weeks.  They  should  be  well 
weeded  and  watered,  and,  when  sufficiently  strong,  should 
be  set  out  in  the  spring,  or  autumn,  in  nursery  rows,  for 
two  or  three  years,  in  order  to  remain  to  have  a proper 
growth  for  final  planting.” — Reesi^  Cyclopedia, 

Dr.  Drown,  of  Rhode  Island,  says,  that  The  easiest 
method  of  raising  the  locust  is  as  follows  : — Plant  fifteen  or 
twenty  trees  on  an  acre,  and,  when  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
high,  run  straggling  furrows  through  the  ground,  and, 
17 


194 


LOCUST-TREE. 


wherever  the  roots  are  cut  with  the  plough,  new  trees  will 
start  up,  and  will  soon  stock  the  ground  with  a plentiful 
growth.’’ 

Use, — It  is  observed  in  the  North  American  Sylva^  a cele- 
brated work,  by  F.  Andrew  Michaux,  that  “ The  greatest 
consumption  of  locust  wood  is  for  posts,  which  are  em- 
ployed in  preference  for  the  enclosing  of  court-yards,  gar- 
dens and  farms,  in  the  districts  where  the  tree  abounds,  and 
the  circumjacent  country.  They  are  transported  for  the 
same  use  to  Lancaster,  Baltimore,  Washington,  Alexan- 
dria, and  the  vicinity. — When  the  trees  are  felled  i]i  the 
winter,  while  Xhe  circulation  of  the  sap  is  suspej;clK.u,  and 
these  posts  are  allowed  to  become  perfectly  dry  before  they 
are  set,  they  are  estimated  to  last  forty  years.  Experience 
has  shown  that  their  duration  varies  according  to  certain 
differences  in  the  trees  from  which  they  are  formed  : thus 
about  Lancaster,  and  at  Harrisburgh,  a small  town  on  the 
Susquehannah,  where  a considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in 
wood  that  is  brought  down  the  river,  those  trees  are 
reputed  the  best  whose  heart  is  red  ; the  next  in  esteem 
are  those  with  a greenish-yellow  heart ; and  the  least  valu- 
able are  those  with  a white  heart.  From  this  variety  in 
the  colour  of  the  wood,  which,  probably,  arises  from  a dif- 
ference of  soil,  are  derived  the  names  of  redy  greeuy  and 
white  locust.  In  the  Western  States,  there  is  a variety  which 
is  sometimes  called  black  locust’^ 

it  is  probable,  that  the  locust  with  a greenish-yellow 
heart,”  spoken  of  by  M.  Michaux  is  the  same  with  that 
which  Mr.  Briggs  calls  the  yellow  locust;  and  although 
M.  Michaux  supposes  “ this  variety  in  the  colour  of  the 
wood  probably  arises  from  a difference  of  soil,”  it  is  not  im- 
possible that  there  may  be  permanent  specific  differences 
in  the  several  varieties.  If  so,  the  discovery  is  of  impor- 
tance. 

M.  Michaux  says,  ‘‘In  naval  architecture,  the  ship- 
wrights use  as  much  locust-wood  as  they  can  procure.  It 
is  as  durable  as  the  live  oak  and  the  red  cedar,  with  the 
advantage  of  beiiig  stronger  than  the  one,  and  lighter  than 
the  other.” 

With|  regard  to  ibe  insect  which  destroys  the  locust,  M. 
Michaux  says,  “ Within  eighteen  or  twenty  years,  an  obsta- 
i‘le  has  unhappily  appeared,  which  will  contribute  greatly 
to  prevent  the  multiplication  of  the  locust  in  all  the  an- 
ciently settled  parts  of  the  United  States  ; this  is  a winged 
insect,  which  attacks  the  tree  while  standing,  penetrates 


LOCUST-TREfi. 


195 


through  the  bark  into  the  centre  of  the  trunk,  and,  for  the 
space  of  a foot,  mines  it  in  every  direction,  so  that  it  is 
easily  broken  by  the  wind.  This  inconvenience  is  already 
so  serious,  as  to  induce  many  people  to  forego  all  attempts 
to  form  plantations  of  locust.  In  Virginia,  I have  not 
learned  that  trees  of  the  natural  growth  have  been  visited 
by  this  destroyer,  but  those  that  have  been  reared  about  the 
plantations  have  already  felt  its  ravages.  This  evil,  which 
it  appears  difficult  to  remedy,  will  be  more  sensibly  felt 
when  the  destruction  of  the  forests  now  on  foot,  an  inevita- 
ble consequence  of  the  neglect  of  all  measures  of  preserva- 
tion, shall  force  the  inhabitants  to  have  recourse  to  planta- 
tions, which  they  will  wish  to  form,  in  a certain  proportion, 
of  the  locust.  Hence  it  may  result,  that,  disappearing  suc- 
cessively from  the  American  forests,  by  constant  consump- 
tion, and  not  being  reproduced  on  account  of  the  insect,  the 
locusts  will  become  extremely  rare  in  their  native  country, 
and  abundant  in  Europe,  where  no  similar  catastrophe  for- 
bids their  propagation.” 

The  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture 
have  offered  a premium  of  fifty  dollars  ‘‘  for  a mode  of  ex- 
tirpating the  worm  that  attacks  the  locust-tree,  which  shall 
appear  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  trustees  to  be  effectual.” 

The  following,  copied  from  a report  of  a committee  of 
the  Essex  Agricultural  Society^  on  farms  in  Essex  county. 
Mass.,  (published  in  the  N.  E,  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  145,) 
places  the  advantages  to  be  anticipated  from  the  culture  of 
the  locust  in  a fair,  and,  we  believe,  just  point  of  view. 

A practical  illustration  of  the  advantages  of  cultivating 
the  locust  tree  presented  itself  on  the  farm  of  Dr.  Nichols. 
Several  acres,  that  were,  a few  years  since,  barren  and 
gravelly  pastures,  are  now  covered  with  a good  coat  of 
grass,  almost  entirely  by  reason  of  planting  and  permitting 
a growth  of  locust  trees  upon  the  land.  This  is  easily  done, 
after  a few  trees  have  taken  root,  either  from  the  seed,  or 
by  being  transplanted,  and  taking  care  that  homed  cattle 
do  not  go  upon  the  land  while  the  trees  are  young.  In 
addition  to  the  increase  of  feed,  the  trees  themselves  are 
well  worthy  of  cultivation.  No  growth  is  more  rapid,  and 
none  more  in  demand,  or  of  greater  value  when  arrived  at 
maturity.  It  may  be  doubted  whether  an  acre  of  land  can 
be  made  to  yield  more  in  the  course  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
years,  without  the  application  of  any  manure,  than  by  plant- 
ing it  with  locust-trees.  On  a fair  computation,  the  num- 
ber of  serviceable  posts  that  might  be  obtained  in  this  time 


196 


LOVE-APPLE. MADDER. 


would  be  from,  three  to  six  hundred,  worth  from  fifty  cents 
to  one  dollar  each.  The  increase  of  feed  and  surplus  wood 
would  fully  pay  the  labour  of  cultivation  ; so  that  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  timber  would  be  the  profits  of  the  land. 

An  objection  to  the  cultivation  of  the  locust-tree  is  often 
brought  from  the  fact  that  they  are  sometimes  destroyed  by 
worms.  This  is  true ; but  the  ravages  of  this  insect  are 
found  to  be  greatest  where  the  trees  are  few  and  scattered. 
In  the  grove  on  this  farm,  which  extends  over  a number  of 
acres,  and  in  the  other  groves  in  the  vicinity,  but  very  few 
of  the  trees  are  at  all  injured  by  worms.  This  objection  is 
by  no  means  sufficient  to  authorize  the  neglect  of  their  cul- 
tivation. It  certainly  is  of  the  highest  importance  to  the 
farmers  of  Essex,  to  inquire  how  they  can  improve  their 
pastures  ; or,  rather,  how  they  can  save  them  from  ruin  ; 
for  it  must  be  obvious  to  all,  that,  as  at  present  managed, 
they  are  constantly  growing  worse,  and  many  of  them 
have  already  become  of  very  little  value.  If,  by  planting 
them  with  trees,  by  ploughing,  by  applying  plaster,  as  has 
been  done,  with  good  success,  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Bartlett, 
or  in  any  other  way,  they  can  be  reclaimed,  it  surely  is 
worthy  of  the  experiment.” 

LOVE-APPLE. — See  Tomato. 

MADDER. — Rubia  tinctoria. — The  following  directions 
for  raising  this  plant  are  copied  from  The  Emporium  of  Arts : 

“ This  plant  may  be  propagated  either  by  offsets  or  seeds. 
If  the  latter  method  is  preferred,  the  seed  should  be  of  the 
true  Turkish  kind,  which  is  called  Lizariy  in  the  Levant. 
On  a light,  thin  soil,  the  culture  cannot  be  carried  on  to  any 
great  profit-  The  soil  in  which  the  plant  delights  is  a 
rich,  sandy  loam,  being  three  feet  in  depth,  or  more. 

“ The  ground,  being  first  made  smooth,  is  divided  into 
beds  four  feet  wide,  with  alternate  alleys  half  as  wide  again 
as  the  beds.  The  reason  of  this  extraordinary  breadth  of 
the  alleys  will  presently  appear.  In  each  alley  is  to  be  a 
shallow  channel  for  the  convenience  of  irrigating  the  whole 
fields,  &c.  That  part  of  the  alley  which  is  not  occupied 
may  be  sown  with  legumes. 

“ The  madder  seed  is  sown  broad-cast,  in  the  proportion 
of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds  per  acre,  about  the  end 
of  April.  In  a fortnight  or  three  weeks,  the  young  plants 
begin  to  appear ; and  from  this  time  to  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember, care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  ground  well  wa- 
tered, and  free  from  weeds. 

‘ If  the  plants  are  examined  in  autumn,  they  will  be 


MANGEL  WURTZEL. MARJORAM  ORIGANUM.  197 

found  surrounded  with  small  yellow  ofl'sets,  at  the  depth 
of  two  inches ; and  early  in  September,  the  earth  from  the 
alleys  is  to  be  dug-  out,  and  laid  over  the  plants  of  madder, 
to  the  height  of  two  or  three  inches.  With  this,  the  first 
year’s  operation  ceases. 

“ 'J’ne  second  year’s  work  begins  in  May,  with  giving 
the  beds  a thorough  w'eeding ; and  care  must  be  taken  to 
supply  them  with  plenty  of  water  during  the  summer.  In 
September,  the  first  crop  of  seed  will  be  ripe ; at  which 
time  the  stems  of  the  plants  may  be  mown  down,  and  the 
roots  covered  a few  inches  with  earth,  taken  as  before  out 
of  the  alleys. 

“ The  weeding  should  take  place  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring  of  the  third  year  ; and  the  crop,  instead  of  being  left 
for  seed,  may  be  cut  three  times,  during  summer,  for  green 
fodder,  all  kinds  of  cattle  being  remarkably  fond  of  it. 

In  October,  the  roots  are  taken  up,  the  offsets  carefully 
separated,  and  immediately  used  to  form  a new  plantation ; 
and  the  roots,  after  being  dried,  are  sold,  either  without 
further  preparation,  or  ground  to  a coarse  powder,  and 
sprinkled  with  an  alkaline  lie. 

“ The  roots  lose  four  fifths  of  their  weight  in  drying ; 
and  the  produce  of  an  acre  is  about  two  thousand  pounds 
weight  of  dry,  saleable  madder.” 

‘‘  Madder  usually  sells  for  about  thirty-two  dollars  per 
hundred ; so  that  the  produce  of  an  acre,  as  above  stated, 
would  amount  to  six  hundred  and  forty  dollars.” — Farmer^» 

"^*MANGEL  WURTZEL.— S'ee  Beet. 

MARJORAM  ORIGANUM.— Of  this  herb  there  are 
four  different  species  cultivated ; the  pot^  sweety  i&inter^  and 
common. 

Pot  marjoram — O.  onitcs — is  a hardy,  perennial,  under 
shrub,  a native  of  Italy.  The  stem  rises  more  than  a foot 
high,  and  is  covered  with  spreading  hairs ; the  leaves  are 
small  and  acute,  almo.st  sessile,  and  downy  on  both  sides. 
It  is  in  flow’er  from  July  to  November,  and  is  propagated 
from  seed,  but  chiefly  from  rooted  slips. 

Sweet  marjoram — O,  marjorana — is  a hardy  biennial, 
a native  of  Portugal.  It  resembles  the  O.  Onites,,  but  the 
leaves  have  distinct  petioles,  aiid  the  flowers,  which  appear 
in  June  and  July,  are  collected  in  small,  close  heads  ; and 
hence  it  is  often  called  knoUed  marjoram.  When  in  blos- 
som, the  herb  is  cut  over,  and  dried  for  winter  use,  so  that 
a sowing  requires  to  be  made  every  year. 

17# 


198 


MELON. 


The  WINTER  SWEET  MARJORAM  is  the  O.  Heracleaticum^ 
a hardy  perennial,  a native  of  Greece.  The  leaves  of  this 
species  resemble  those  of  O.  marjorana;  but  the  flow- 
ers come  in  spikes.  It  flowiei^g  from  June  to  November, 
requires  a sheltered,  dry  soil,  and,  seldom  ripening  its  seeds, 
is  propagated  by  slips  and  cuttings. 

The  COMMON  MARJORAM  is  the  O.  vulgare^  a native  of 
Britain.  It  bears  a considerable  resemblance  to  the  last 
named  species.  The  flowers  arise  in  sub-rotund  panicles,  in 
smooth,  coloured  spikes,  of  a reddish  appearance,  in  July  and 
August.  This  species  is  only  used  in  cookery,  in  default 
of  the  others. 

Cvltme, — The  three  first  species  prefer  a light,  dry  soil ; 
the  other  a calcareous  soil  and  shady  situation.  For  a seed- 
bed, three  feet  by  three  feet,  a quarter  of  an  ounce  of  seed 
is  sufficient.  ^Sow  in  April,  on  a compartment  of  light 
earth,  either  in  small  drills,  or  broad-cast;  or,  sow  a portion 
in  a hot-bed,  if  requisite  to  have  a small  crop  forwarded. 
When  the  plants  are  one,  two,  or  three  inches  high,  thin 
the  seed-beds,  and  plant  those  thinned  out  in  a final  bed, 
six  inches  apart,  giving  water;  or,  where  larger  supplies 
are  required,  some  may  remain  thick  where  sown,  to  be 
drawn  off  by  the  root  as  wanted.  The  pot^  winter^  and 
common  marjoram  may  be  propagated  from  offsets,  by  part- 
ing the  roots  in  spring  and  autumn.  Plant  in  rows  in  beds, 
allowing  a square  foot  for  each  plant. 

Gather  the  tops  of  all  the  sorts  as  wanted  for  summer 
use ; and  when  in  full  blossom,  in  July  or  August,  for 
preservation  through  the  winter. 

Use. — All  the  species,  but  especially  the  three  first,  are 
aromatics,  of  sweet  flavour,  much  used  as  relishing  herbs  in 
soups,  broths,  stuffings,  &c.  The  young,  tender  tops  and 
leaves  together,  are  used  in  summer,  in  a green  state ; and 
they  are  dried  for  winter. — Abridged  from  Encyc.  of  Gard. 

MELON. Cucumis  melo^  and  Cuciirbita  citrullus. — - 

There  are  but  two  species,  the  melon  with  a rough  or  em- 
broidered coat,  called  musk-melon,  {cucumis  melof)  and  the 
melon  with  a smooth  skin,  called  water-melon,  (cucurbita 
citrullus.)  Of  each  of  the  species  there  are  many  varieties. 
Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  following  : — 


Green  citron,  {/west  variety,) 
Murray's  j)ine  apple, 

Persian, 

Nutmeg", 


Cl/CUMIS  MELO. 


I.arge  cantaleupe, 
Poinegranile. 


UUlJCg  y 

Minorca, 


CUCUKPITA  CITRULLUS. 
Carolina  water. 

Long  lslan<l  do. 
Api>le-see<led  do.  {early,) 


MELON. 


199 


Seed, — Those  who  wish  to  procure  melons  in  perfec- 
tion, must  be  careful,  in  the  first  place,  to  procure  good 
seed  ; secondly,  to  plant  them  remote  from  an  inferior  sort, 
as  well  as  from  cucumbers,  squashes,  gourds,  and  pump- 
kins ; as  xlegeneracy  will  infallibly  be  the  consequence  of 
inattention  to  these  directions.  Abercrombie  says,  “ Seed 
under  the  age  of  two  years  is  apt  to  run  too  much  to 
vine,  and  show  only  male  flowers ; but  new  seed  may 
be  mellowed  by  being  carried  in  the  pocket  a fortnight  or 
more,  till  the  heat  of  the  body  has  dried  and  hardened  it. 
Seed  twenty  years  old  has  been  known  to  grow,  and  make 
fruitful  plants  ; but  seed  which  has  been  kept  three  or  four 
years  is  quite  old  enough,  and  less  likely  to  fail  than 
older.” 

SoU, — Abercrombie  says,  The  melon  will  succeed  in 

any  unexhausted  loam,  rich  in  vegetable  rudiments,  with  a 
mixture  of  sand,  but  not  too  light.  The  following  is  a 
good  compost;  two  thirds  of  top-spit  earth  from  a sheep- 
common,  adding  sharp  sand,  if  the  earth  contains  little  or 
none,  till  half  is  sand ; one  sixth  of  vegetable  mould,  and 
one  sixth  of  well-consumed  horse-dung.  Or,  if  the  earth 
is  not  obtained  from  a sheep-pasture,  rotted  sheep-dung 
may  be  substituted  for  the  last.  The  ingredients  should 
have  been  pulverized  and  incorporated  by  long  previous 
exposure  and  turning  over.”  Dr.  Deane  observed  that  ‘‘  a 
good  manure  to  be  put  under  melons  is  an  old  compost  of 
good  loam,  with  the  dung  of  neat  cattle  or  swine.” 

Sowing  melons  in  the  open  ground, — Mr.  Armstrong  says, 

To  succeed  in  raising  them  for  market,  the  Honfleur 
method,  as  described  by  M.  Calvel,  may  be  employed. — 
Select  a spot  well  defended  against  the  north  wind,  and 
open  to  the  sun  throughout  the  day.  If  such  is  not  to  be 
found  in  your  garden,  create  a temporary  and  artificial  shel- 
ter, producing  the  same  effect.  At  the  end  of  March,  form 
holes  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  distant  from  each  other 
s^ven  feet  and  a half;  fill  these  with  horse-dung  and  litter, 
or  a mixture  of  mould,  dung  and  sand.  At  the,  end  of 
twenty  days,  cover  the  holes,  which  have  been  thus  filled, 
with  hand-glasses.  When  the  heat  rises  to  36  of  Reau- 
mu.,  [113  Fahr.,]  sow'  the  seeds  four  inches  apart;  and 
when  the  plants  have  acquired  two  or  three  leaves,  pinch 
off  the  end  of  the  branch  or  runner.'*^'  This  will  produce 


* “ There  is  much  cohiroversy  g-anleners  and  savants  on  this  point  ; 

nor  are  the  jmi  ^ ^ eiitireiy  united  in  opinion,  how  far  this  practice  should  be 
c&  ried.  Some  content  themselves  witli  taki’og  off  the  cotyledons,  when  tha 


200 


M£L<Lr^^« 


lateral  branches,  which  must  again  be  pinched  off,  as  soon  as 
they  respectively  attain  to  the  length  of  ten  inches.  When 
the  plant  has  outgrown  the  glass,  the  latter  becomes  use- 
less, and  may  be  removed ; but,  should  the  weather  be  wet 
or  chilly,  substitute  coverings  of  clean  straw  for  that  of  the 
glasses,  until  the  young  plant  becomes  strong  enough  to 
bear  the  open  air.  Two  or  three  melons  only  are  left  on 
each  vine,  and  under  each  of  these  is  placed  a slate,  with- 
out which  the  upper  and  under  side  will  not  ripen  together. 
Two  months  are  required  to  mature  them.  The  people  of 
Honfleur  attribute  their  success  in  melon-raising  to  the  sea- 
vapour  which  surrounds  them,  and  to  the  saline  particles 
contained  in  it,  an  advantage  to  be  any  where  commanded, 
by  dissolving  a little  salt  in  the  water  employed  to  moisten 
them.”  Whether  a bed  of  slate  would  prove  too  warm 
for  the  melon  in  our  climate,  we  cannot  say.  Perhaps 
shingles  or  boards  might  be  preferable,  as  they  would  not 
be  rendered  so  hot  by  the  noon-day  sun,*  nor  so  cold  by 
the  night  air.  We  have  never  known  salt,  either  in  sub- 
stance or  solution,  used  as  a manure  for  melons,  but  think 
it  would  be  well  to  try  its  effects. 

The  following  are  McMahon’s  directions  for  raising  mel- 
ons in  the  open  ground.  Some  time  in  May,  ‘‘  prepare  a 
place  of  rich,  sandy  ground,  well  exposed  to  the  sun ; ma- 
nure it,  and  give  it  a good  digging  ; then  mark  it  out 
into  squares  of  six  feet  every  way ; at  the  angle  of  every 
square  dig  a hole  twelve  inches  deep,  and  eighteen  over, 
into  which  put  seven  or  eight  inches  deep  of  old  hot-bed 
dung,  or  very  rotten  manure ; throw  thereon  about  four 
inches  of  earth,  and  mix  the  dung  and  earth  well  with  the 
spade ; after  which  draw  the  remainder  of  the  earth  over 
the  mixture,  so  as  to  form  a round  hill  about  a foot  broad  at 
top.  Some  people  use  hot  stable-dung  under  an  idea  that 
its  heat  would  promote  the  vegetation  of  the  seed  : this  is 
a mistaken  notion,  as,  in  a few  hours,  it  loses  all  it  had,  for 
want  of  a sufficient  quantity  being  together  to  promote  fer- 
mentation, and  becomes  a dryish  wisp,  unfit,  at  least  for 
the  present,  to  afford  either  heat  or  nourishment  to  the 
plants. 

“ When  your  hills  are  all  prepared  as  above,  plant  in 
each,  towards  the  centre,  eight  or  nine  grains  of  good  mel- 

plant  has  a^'fiuircd  three  or  four  leaves  j while  others  lake  off  the  principal 
branches  of  the  first  eye  above  the  fruit,  and  suppress  all  the  secondary  branch- 
es, male  flowers  and  Tendrils.  These  operations,  says  Mr.  Bose,  are  founded 
in  bad  reasoninj^.  A cutting,  which  suppresses  two  thirds  of  the  plant  at  once, 
cannot  fail  to  disorganize  what  remains.'^ 


MELON.  201 

on-seed,  distant  two  inches  from  one  another,  and  cover 
them  about  half  an  inch  deep.” 

After-culture, — ‘‘  When  the  plants  are  up,  and  in  a state 
of  forwardness,  producing  their  rough  leaves,  they  must  be 
thinned  to  two  or  three  in  each  hill . the  extra  number  in 
some  may  serve  to  fill  up  deficiences  in  others : draw  earth 
from  time  to  time  round  the  hills,  and  as  high  about  the 
plants  as  the  seed-leaves;  when  fit  stop  them.  This  oper- 
ation should  be  performed  when  the  plants  have  two  rough 
leaves,  and  when  the  second  is  about  an  inch  broad,  hav- 
ing the  first  runner-bud  rising  at  its  base ; the  sooner  this 
is  detached,  the  sooner  the  plants  acquire  strength,  and  put 
out  fruitful  runners. 

It  is  to  be  done  in  the  following  manner  : — 

You  will  see  arising  in  the  centre  of  the  plant,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  second  rough  leaf,  the  end  of  the  first  runner, 
like  a small  bud ; which  bud  or  runner,  being  the  advancing 
top  of  the  plant,  is  now  to  be  taken  off  close,  and  may  be 
done  either  with  the  point  of  a penknife  or  small  scissors, 
or  pinched  off  carefully  with  the  finger  and  thumb ; but, 
whichever  way  you  take  it  off,  be  careful  not  to  go  so  close 
as  to  wound  the  joint  from  whence  it  proceeds.” 

Armstrong  says,  “ If  the  branches  be  vigorous  and 
long,  stretch  them  carefully  over  a level  surface,  and  bury 
every  fourth  or  fifth  joint.  This  is  best  done  by  means  of  a 
wooden  crotchet.  The  objects  of  pinching,  or  shortening 
the  stem,  are  thus  completely  fulfilled,  without  aiiy  of  the 
risk  which  attends  that  operation,  and  v/ith  advantages 
peculiar  to  this  method ; as,  wherever  the  plant  is  buried, 
new  roots  are  formed  for  the  better  nutrition  of  the  stem 
and  the  fruit.” 

Setting, — “ As  the  fruit-bearers  come  into  blossom,  you 
may  assist  the  setting  of  the  fruit,  by  impregnating  some 
of  the  female  blossoms  with  the  male  flowers,  as  directed 
for  the  cucumber.  The  melon,  however,  will  also  set  nat- 
urally, and  produce  fertile  seeds,  if  the  time  of  fructification 
fall  at  a season  when  the  glasses  can  be  left  almost 
constantly  open.” — Aber.  Nicol  says  he  has  proved, 
experimentally,  that  melons  not  impregnated  will  not  swell 
off  so  fair  and  handsome  as  inapregnated  ones,  and  there- 
fore considers  it  more  necessary  to  attend  to  this  operation 
in  melons  than  in  cucumbers.” — Loudon, 

Care  of  the  fruit, — As  the  fruit  increases  to  the  size  of  a 
walnut,  place  a flat  tile  or  slate  under  each,  to  protect  it 
from  the  damp  of  the  earth  ; the  slab,  thus  interposed,  will 


202 


MELON. 


also  assist  the  fruit  to  ripen,  by  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
^Aher.  Nicol  advises  placing  the  fruit  on  bits  of  slate  or 
glass  some  time  before  it  begins  to  ripen  ; but  by  no  means 
slate  or  moss  the  whole  surface  of  the  bed. 

Forcing  melons, — The  ‘‘  Honfleur  method’’  of  forwarding 
the  production  of  melons,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Armstrong,  has 
been  given,  pp.  199,  200.  The  same  writer  continues,  ‘‘If 
we  want  melons  at  a period  earlier  than  this  method  will 
give  them,  we  must  employ  a higher  degree  and  a longer 
continuance  of  artificial  heat ; in  a word,  we  must  resort 
to  hot-beds^  and  in  these  the  point  most  important  and  diffi- 
cult of  attainment  at  the  same  time  is,  to  secure  a certain 
degree  of  heat,  and  no  more,  throughout  the  whole  process. 
To  lessen  the  difficulty  in  this  case,  gardeners,  who  under- 
stand their  trade,  make  choice  of  those  varieties  which 
have  the  thinnest  skins  and  the  least  bulk,  as  experience 
proves  that,  other  things  being  equal,  they  require  less 
heat  than  those  of  thicker  rinds  and  greater  size,  and  are 
of  course  less  subject  to  some  of  the  accidents  to  which 
this  species  of  culture  is  exposed.  In  choosing  the  seeds, 
those  of  the  last  year  are  only  to  be  used,  because  they 
are  of  quicker  vegetation  than  old  ones,  and,  accord- 
ingly, best  fulfil  the  intention  of  the  hot-bed,  which  is,  to 
give  early  fruit.  Another  practice  conducive  to  the  safety 
of  the  plants,  is,  to  sow  the  seeds  in  small  pots,  and  then 
to  plunge  them  into  a hot-bed.  If  the  heat  be  deficient, 
they  are,  in  this  case,  made  no  worse  than  they  would  have 
been,  if  sown  directly  in  the  bed  ; and  if  it  be  excessive,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  raise  the  pots,  without  in  the  smallest 
degree  disturbing  the  plant.  These  things  being  premised, 
it  but  remains  to  show  what  ought  to  be  the  subsequent  man- 
agement after  the  seed  has  been  sown,  and  the  pots  placed 
under  the  frames.  One  of  the  most  important  points  now 
to  be  observed,  is  sufficiently  to  ventilate  the  bed,  as  well 
before  as  after  the  plants  show  themselves.  This  should  be 
done  at  mid-day  and  in  sunshine,  and  as  often  as  a necessity 
for  it  shall  be  indicated  by  an  accumulation  of  steam  under 
the  glasses.  At  night,  these  (the  glasses)  should  be 
carefully  covered  with  matting.  These  two  preliminaries 
(ventilation  in  the  day,  and  covering  at  night)  being  care- 
fully observed,  your  plants  will  soon  show  themselves  in  a 
vigorous  and  healthy  state,  and  may  be  kept  in  that  condi- 
tion by  a continuation  of  the  same  means,  and  by  moderate- 
ly moistening  the  earth  when  it  shall  have  become  too  dry. 
The  water  employed  should  be  of  the  same  temperature 


MELON, 


203 


of  the  air  under  the  frames  ; and,  to  secure  this,  it  is  wel 
to  keep  a supply  of  it  in  a pot,  placed  in  a corner  of  the 
hot-bed.  In  about  a month,  the  plants,  thus  raised,  will  be 
fit  for  transferring  to  a second  and  larger  hot-bed,  construe.- 
ed  like  the  preceding,  with  the  exception,  that  the  mass  of. 
dung  must  now  be  greater,  and  that,  after  earthing,  the  bed 
should  not  be  less  than  three  and  a half  or  four  feet  in  depth. 
The  plants,  with  the  earth  in  which  they  grow,  are  now  to 
be  taken  from  the  pots — an  operation  in  which  practice 
only  will  make  us  expert,  and  which  consists  in  placing 
the  neck  of  the  plant  between  the  first  and  second  finger 
of  the  left  hand,  reversing  the  pot,  and  gently  striking  its 
sides  till  the  earth  be  disengaged.  The  discharged  mass 
is  then  placed  in  a hole,  previously  prepared  in  the 
square,  where  it  is  intended  the  plant  shall  ripen  and 
produce.’^ 

Catting  the  fruit, — Nicol  observes,  that  “ Melons,  if  al- 
lowed to  remain  on  tha  plant  till  they  be  of  a deep  yellow 
colour,  lose  much  of  their  flavour.  They  should,  therefore, 
be  cut  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  change  to  a greenish-yellow, 
or,  rather,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  smell  ripe.  They  may 
lie  in  a frame  for  a day  or  two,  if  not  immediately  wanted, 
where  they  will  acquire  sufficient  colour.  But  if  they  are 
let  remain  many  days  in  the  frame,  they  will  become  as 
insipid  as  if  they  had  been  left  too  long  on  the  plant.” 

Saving  seed, — The  ordinary  mode  is  to  request  the 
seeds  of  particularly  fine  fruits  of  approved  sorts  to  be  re- 
turned from  table.  The  best  way,  however,  is  to  pick 
some  best  ripe  fniit,  take  out  the  seed,  clean  it  from  the 
pulp,  and  let  it  be  well  dried  and  hardened ; and  then  put 
it  up  in  papers. — Abercrombie.  Nicol  says,  wash  it  very 
clean,  skimming  off  the  light  seeds,  as  those  only  which 
sink  in  water  will  grow.  Great  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  sorts  from  which  seeds  are  saved  are  genuine  and  dis- 
tinct. When  different  sorts  are  planted  in  the  same  bed, 
this  cannot  be  the  case. 

Second  crop  from  the  same  plants, — When  the  fruit  of 
the  first  crop  is  off,  a second  crop  may  be  obtained  from 
the  same  stools,  which  often  proves  more  productive  than 
the  first.  If  the  first  crop  is  taken  before  the  middle  of 
June,  the  second  will  come  at  a very  good  time.  For  this 
purpose,  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  cut,  prune  the  plant.  Short- 
en the  vigorous,  healthy  runners,  at  a promising  joint,  to 
force  out  new  laterals,  cutting  about  two  inches  above  the 
joint.  At  the  same  time,  take  off  all  decayed  or  sickly  vines, 


:204 


mNT, 


and  all  dead  leaves.  Stir  the  surface  of  the  mould,  and 
renew  it  partially  by  three  inches’  depth  of  fresh  compost. 
Water  the  plants  copiously,  shutting  down  the  glasses  for 
the  night.  Shade  in  the  middle  of  hot  days ; and  give  but 
little  air,  until  the  plant  has  made  new  radicles  and  shoots. 
Afterwards  repeat  the  course  of  culture  above  described, 
from  the  stage  when  the  first  runners  are  sent  out  till  fruit 
is  cut” — Loudon, 

Insects  and  diseases, — To  prevent  melon-plants  from  be- 
ing infested  with  insects,  or  injured  by  diseases  of  any 
kind,  no  better  method  can  be  adopted  than  to  keep  the 
plants  constantly  in  a healthy,  vigorous,  growing  state ; 
for  this  purpose,  M‘Phail  observes,  They  must  be  con- 
stantly attended  to,  giving  them  plenty  of  heat  and  water. 
In  warm  weather,  in  the  spring  and  in  summer,  they  should 
be  watered  occasionally  all  over  their  fruit  and  leaves,  till 
the  earth  in  which  they  grow  be  thoroughly  moistened,” 
In  this  country,  melons  and  cucumbers  are  much  infested 
by  a small  yellow  bug,  and  perhaps  the  best  method  of 
securing  them  is  covering  the  plants  with  a frame,  on 
which  millinet  is  stretched  and  fastened,  as  directed  under 
tL'  article  Cucumber. 

Use, — The  use  of  melons,  as  a palatable  and  'syholesome 

tide  of  diet,  is  too  well  known  to  need  any  remarks.  Dr. 
^lease,  of  Philadelphia,  observes,  that  The  juice  of  the 
oweeter  kind  of  water-melon  yields,  on  inspissation,  a 
bright  light-coloured  syrup,  which  would  answer  every 
^jrpose  required  of  any  syrup.  Mr.  Henry  Drinker,  of 
Philadelphia,  procured  half  a pound  of  this  syrup,  from 
fourteen  pounds  of  melon  juice,  a part  of  w'hich  I tast- 
ed, and  found  very  pleasant.”  To  make  the  most  of  unripe 
melons,  Loudon’s  Magazine  directs  to  ‘‘boil  them,  and 
season  them  with  spices  and  salt,  or  bake  th^^m  like  a 
pumpkin-pie.”  The  rind  of  the  water-melon  is  also  used 
for  pickling,  &c. 

MINT. — — This  is  a genus  of  plants  comprising 
tw  enty-four  species.  Those  cultivated  in  gardens  are  pep- 
permint, (M,  piperita;)  spearmint,  (M,  viridis;)  penny- 
royal-mint, (M.  pnlegium,) 

Culture, — All  “ the  species  are  raised  by  the  same  meth- 
ods, viz.  by  parting  the  root?,  by  offset  young  plants,  and 
by  cuttings  of  the  stalks.  Spearmint  and  peppermint  like 
a moist  soil ; penny- royal,  a strong  loam.  The  plants  set 
in  spring  or  summer  will  come  into  use  the  same  year. 
They  may  be  placed  about  eight  indies  apart,  on  beds  aba  t 


MULBERRY. MUSHROOM.  205 

four  feet  wide,  allowing  a path  two  feet  broad.  New  beds 
should  be  made  every  three  years. 

Gathering  the  crop^  and  use. — “ Mint  should  be  cut  for 
drying,”  says  Philips,  ‘‘just  when  it  is  in  flower,  and  on  a 
fine  day ; for  if  cut  in  damp  weather,  the  leaves  will  turn 
black.  It  should  be  tied  in  small  bunches,  and  dried  in  a 
shady  place,  out  of  the  wind ; but,  to  retain  its  natural  virtues 
more  effectually,  it  has  been  found  better  to  place  the  mint 
in  a screen,  and  to  dry  it  quickly  before  a fire,  so  that  it 
may  be  powdered  and  immediately  put  into  glass  bottles, 
and  kept  well  stopped.  Parsley,  thyme,  sage,  and  other 
herbs,  retain  their  full  fragrance  when  thus  prepared,  and 
are  by  this  mode  secured  from  dust,  and  always  ready  to 
the  hand  of  the  cook. 

“ A conserve  made  of  mint  is  grateful,  and  the  dis- 
tilled waters,  both  simple  and  spirituous,  are  much  esteem- 
ed. The  juice  of  spearmint,  drank  in  vinegar,  often 
stops  the  hiccup.  Lewis  observes,  what  has  before  been 
observed  by  Pliny,  that  mint  prevents  the  coagulation  of 
milk,  and  hence  it  is  recommended  in  milk  diets.” 

MULBERRY. — Morus. — See  Silk. 

MUSHROOM. — Agaricus. — This  is  a genus  of  plants 
comprising  a great  many  species,  of  which,  according  to 
some  authors,  three  hundred  are  natives  of  Great  Britain. 
The  kind  cultivated  in  gardens  is  the  Agaricus  campestrisj 
which  is  thus  described  by  M‘Mahon  : — “ The  gills  of  this 
are  loose,  of  a pinky  red,  changing  to  liver  colour,  in  contact, 
but  not  united  with  the  stem  ; very  thick  set,  some  forked 
next  the  stem,  some  next  the  edge  of  the  cap,  some  at  both 
ends,  and  generally,  in  that  case,  excluding  the  intermediate 
smaller  gills.  Cop,  white,  changing  to  brown  when  old, 
and  becoming  scurfy,  fleshy,  and  regularly  convex,  but  with 
age  flat,  and  liquefying  in  decay ; flesh  white ; diameter 
commonly  from  one  inch  to  three,  or  sometimes  four  or 
more.  Stem  solid,  one  to  three  inches  high,  and  about 
half  an  inch  in  diameter.” 

Loudon  says,  “ The  mushroom  is  a well  known  native 
vegetable,  springing  up  in  open  pastures  in  August  and  Sep- 
tember. It  is  most  readily  distinguished,  when  of  middle 
size,  by  its  fine  pink  or  flesh-coloured  gills,  and  pleasant 
smell ; in  a more  advanced  stage,  the  gills  become  of  a 
chocolate  colour,  and  it  is  then  more  apt  to  be  confounded 
with  other  kinds  of  dubious  quality ; but  that  species 
which  most  nearly  resembles  it,  is  slimy  to  the  touch,  and 
destitute  of  the  fine  odour,  having  rather  a disagreeable 


206 


kUSHROOM, 


smell:  further,  the  noxious  kind  grows  in  woods^ or  on  the 
margins  of  woods,  while  the  true  mushroom  springs  up 
chiefly  in  open  pastures,  and  should  be.  gathered  only  in 
such  places.” 

Mr.  Armstrong  gives  the  following  directions  for  culti- 
vating the  garden  mushroom  : — Prepare  a bed,  early  in 
October,  either  in  a corner  of  the  hot-house,  if  you  have 
one,  or  a dry  and  warm  cellar.  The  width  of  the  bed  at 
bottom  should  not  be  less  than  four  feet,  and  its  length  in 
proportion  to  the  spawn  provided.  Its  sides  should  rise 
perpendicularly  one  foot,  and  should  afterwards  decrease  to 
the  centre,  forming  four  sloping  surfaces.  We  need  hardly 
say  that  the  material  of  the  bed  at  this  stage  of  the  busi- 
ness must  be  horse-dung,  well  forked,  and  pressed  together 
to  prevent  its  settling  unequally.  It  should  then  be  cover- 
ed with  long  straw,  as  well  to  exclude  frost  as  to  keep  in 
the  volatile  parts  of  the  mass,  which  would  otherwise 
escape.  After  ten  days,  the  temperature  of  the  bed  will  be 
sufficiently  moderated,  when  the  straw  is  to  be  removed, 
and  a covering  of  good  mould,  to  the  depth  of  an  inch,  laid 
over  the  dung.  On  this  the  sjeed  or  spawn  of  the  mush- 
room [which  are  threads  or  fibres  of  a white  colour,  found 
in  old  pasture-grounds,  in  masses  of  rotten  horse-dung, 
sometimes  under  stable-floors,  and  frequently  in  the  re- 
mains of  old  hot-beds]  is  to  be  placed  in  rows,  six  inches 
apart,  occupying  all  the  sloping  parts  of  the  bed,  which  is 
again  to  be  covered  with  a second  inch  of  fresh  mould  and 
a coat  of  straw.  If  your  bed  has  been  well  constructed, 
your  mushrooms  will  be  fit  for  use  at  the  end  of  five  or 
six  weeks,  and  will  continue  to  be  productive  for  several 
months.  Should  you,  however,  in  the  course  of  the  win- 
ter, find  its  productiveness  diminished,  take  off*  nearly  all 
the  original  covering,  and  replace  it  with  eight  or  ten  inch- 
es of  fresh  dung  and  a coat  of  clean  straw.  This,  by 
creating  a new  heat,  will  revive  the  action  of  the  spawn, 
and  give  a long  succession  of  mushrooms.” — Mem^  of  N. 
FI  Board  of  Agr,  vol.  ii.  p.  125. 

Use, — The  garden  mushroom  is  eaten  fresh,  either  stew- 
ed or  boiled ; and  preserved  as  a pickle,  or  in  powder,  or 
dried  whole.  The  sauce  commonly  called  ketchup  (sup- 
posed, by  Martyn,  from  the  Japanese,  kitfap)  is  or  ought 
^:o  be  made  from  its  juice  with  salt  and  spices.  Wild 
fiiushrooms  from  old  pastures  are  generally  considered  as 
more  delicate  in  flavour,  and  more  tender  in  flesh,  than 
those  raised  in  artificial  beds.  But  the  young  or  butter 


MUSTARD* 


SOT 

mushrooms,  of  the  cultivated  sort,  are  firmer,  and  better  for 
pickling  ; and  in  using  cultivated  mushrooms,  there  is  evi- 
dently much  less  risk  of  deleterious  kinds  being  employed.^' 
— Neill  and  Marfyn, 

‘‘  Antidote  to  poisonous  sorts. — All  fungi  should  be  used 
with  great  caution,  for  even  the  champignon  and  edible  gar- 
den-mushrooms possess  deleterious  qualities  when  grown 
in  certain  places.  All  the  edible  species  should  be  thor- 
oughly masticated,  before  taken  into  the  stomach,  as  this 
greatly  lessens  the  effect  of  poisons.  When  accidents  of 
this  sort  happen,  vomiting  should  be  immediately  excited, 
and  then  the  vegetable  acids  should  be  given,  either  vine- 
gar, lemon-juice,  or  that  of  apples  ; after  which,  give  ether 
and  antispasmodic  remedies,  to  stop  the  excessive  bilious 
vomiting.  Infusions  of  gall-nut,  oak-bark,  and  Peruvian 
bark  are  recommended  as  capable  of  neutralizing  the  pois- 
onous principle  of  mushrooms.  It  is,  however,  the  safest 
way  not  to  eat  any  of  the  good^  but  less  common  sorts,  until 
they  have  been  soaked  in  vinegar.  Spirit  of  wine  and 
vinegar  extract  some  part  of  their  poison  ; and  tannin  mat- 
ter decomposes  the  greatest  part  of  it.’’ — BotanisVs  Corn-- 
panion^  vol.  ii.  p.  145. 

MUSTARD. — Sinapis. — Of  this  plant  there  are  two 
species  in  cultivation,  the  black  and  the  white ; annuals, 
and  natives  of  Great  Britain. 

The  following  are  Loudon’s  directions  for  the  culture  of 
the  white  mustard,  S.  alba.  For  spring  and  summer  con^ 
sumption,  sow  once  a week  or  fortnight,  in  dry,  warm  situ- 
ations, in  February  and  March ; and,  afterwards,  in  any 
other  compartment  “ In  summer,  sow  in  shady  borders,  if 
it  be  hot,  sunny  weather ; or,  have  the  bed  shaded.  Gen- 
erally, sow  in  shallow,  flat  drills,  from  three  to  six  inches 
apart ; scatter  the  seed  thick  and  regular,  and  cover  in  thin- 
ly with  the  earth,  about  a quarter  of  an  inch.  To  furnish 
gatherings  in  winter  or  early  in  spring,  sow  in  frames  or 
under  hand-glasses ; and  when  the  weather  is  frosty,  or 
very  cold,  in  hot-beds  and  stoves.” 

tise. — This  species,”  according  to  Loudon,  ^‘is  cultiva- 
ted chiefly  as  a small  salad,  and  is  used  like  cresses,  while 
in  the  seed  : when  these  are  newly  expanded,  they  are  mild 
and  tender;  but  when  the  plants  have  advanced  into  the 
rough  leaves,  they  eat  rank  and  disagreeable.”  In  Spain, 
and  throughout  the  south  of  Europe,  the  seed  of  the  white 
species  is  preferred,  for  the  fabrication  of  mustard,  because 


203 


NECTARINE. NURSERY. 


giving  a whiter  and  milder  flour  than  the  seed  of  the 
black.  ” — Armstrong. 

The  seed  of  this  plant  is  also  celebrated  for  its  medical 
virtues,  being  at  once  a tonic  and  an  aperient ; cleansing 
the  stomach  and  bowels,  and  bracing  the  system  at  the 
same  time. — See  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  vi.  p.  188. 

Black  mustard — S.  nigra — is  a larger  plant  than  the 
white,  with  much  darker  leaves,  and  their  divisions 
blunter. 

Use, — “ Black  mustard  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  fields  for 
the  mill,  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  sometimes, 
however,  sown  in  gardens,  and  the  tender  leaves  used  as 
greens,  early  in  the  spring.  The  seed  leaves,  in  common 
with  those  of  the  cress,  radish,  rape,  &c.,  are  sometimes 
used  as  a salad  ingredient ; but  the  grand  purpose  for  which 
the  plant  is  cultivated,  is  for  seeds,  which,  ground,  produce 
the  well  known  condiment.  If  the  seeds.  Dr.  Cullen  ob- 
serves, be  taken  fresh  from  the  plant,  and  ground,  the  pow- 
der has  littb’  pungency,  but  is  very  bitter;  by  steeping  in 
vinegar,  however,  the  esential  oil  is  evolved,  and  the  pow- 
der becomes  extremely  pungent.  In  moistening  mustard- 
powder  for  the  table,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  it  makes  the 
best  appearance  when  rich  milk  is  used  ; but  the  mixture, 
in  this  case,  does  not  keep  good  for  more  than  two  days. 
The  seeds  of  both  the  black  and  white  mustard  are  often 
used,  in  an  entire  state,  medicinally.” 

Culture  for  the  mill, — “ To  raise  seed  for  flour  of  mus- 
tard, and  other  officinal  occasions,  sow,  either  in  March  or 
April,  in  any  open  compartment ; or  make  large  sow'ngs  in 
fields,  where  designed  for  public  supply.  Sow  moderately 
thick,  either  in  drills,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  or 
broad-cast,  and  rake  or  harrow  in  the  seed.  When  the 
plants  are  two  or  three  inches  in  the  growth,  hoe  and 
thin  them  moderately  where  too  thick,  and  clear  them  from 
weeds.  They  will  soon  run  up  in  stalks,  and,  in  July  or 
August,  return  a crop  of  seed  ripe  for  gathering.” — Aher^ 
crombie, 

NECTARINE. — Amygdalus  Persica, — This  is,  by  some 
writers,  considered  as  the  same  fruit  with  the  peach,  and 
its  culture  is  the  same.  See  art.  Fruit,  for  its  different 
kinds,  and  Peach,  for  its  culture. 

NURSERY. — In  establishing  a nursery,  two  point® 
should  be  contemplated — fitness  as  to  the  disposal  of  the 
produce,  and  fitness  as  to  shelter,  aspect,  and  soil.  Regard 


NURSERVi 


203 


must  be  had  to  the  leading  roads  of  the  district,  the  mean!* 
of  carriage  by  land  or  water,  the  objects  which  will  probably 
be  most  in  demand,  whether  seedlings,  fruit-trees,  vines, 
native  plants,  tender  exotics,  or  all  these  united. 

“ In  order  to  have  a complete  nursery,  it  should  contain 
soils  of  various  qualities,  and  not  less  than  eighteen  inches 
or  two  feet  deep ; the  generality  of  it  should  be  light,  friable 
earth  ; a part  of  it  should  be  of  a clayey  nature,  and 
another  part  should  be  mossy.  Each  of  these  will  be  found 
peculiarly  useful  in  the  raising  of  the  different  kinds  of 
young  plants.  The  whole  should  be  well  drained  and 
trenched,  and  cropped  with  vegetables  for  one,  or  even  two 
years,  previously  to  sowing  tree  seeds.  For  transplanting, 
it  may  be  used  the  first  year.  A nursery  may  certainly  be 
over-sheltered ; but  this  is  likely  to  happen  only  in  the  case 
of  its  being  very  small ; for,  if  it  extend  to  several  acres, 
unless  it  be  surrounded  by  very  tall  trees,  the  area  will  be 
considerably  exposed.  No  part  should  be  either  too  much 
exposed,  or  too  much  sheltered.  Any  aspect  from  east  to 
west,  following  the  course  of  the  sun,  will  answer.  Ground 
of  an  unequal  surface  is  most  likely  to  contain  the  variousi 
soils  al|^e  -mentioned.  A nursery  should,  therefore,  in 

general,  rise  from  a level  to  a pretty  smart  acclivity,  yet  no 
part  of  it  should  be  too  steep,  because  it  is,  in  that  case, 
very  troublesome  to  labour.  The  nursery  ground  may  be 
sufficiently  fenced  by  a stone  wall,  or  even  a hedge,  six  feet 
high  ; and  if  it  be  of  small  size,  an  acre  or  thereabouts,  it 
will  require  no  other  shelter  over  all  the  space.  The 
fence,  whether  of  thorns  or  stone,  should  be  made  proof 
against  the  admission  of  hares  or  rabbits.  It  should  be 
subdivided  into  compartments  and  borders,  of  proportionate 
size  to  the  contents  of  the  area,  by  walks.  The  compart- 
ments should  never  be  encumbered  with  large  trees,  as  ap- 
ples, pears,  or  the  like,  because,  being  already  established 
in  the  ground,  they  never  fail  to  rob  the  young  trees  of 
their  food,  and  to  cause  them  to  be  poor  and  stunted,  un- 
worthy of  being  planted.  It  would  be  very  convenient  to 
have  a rill  of  water  passing  through  the  ground,  or  to  have 
a small  pond,  fed  by  a spring,  or  a pipe,  for  the  purpose  of 
watering. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  the  culture  of  trees,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  trench  it  to  its  full  depth,  and  necessary  to  give 
it  a good  dressing  of  lime  or  marl,  or  dung  in  compost 
Rank  manure,  such  as  stable-litter,  should  not  be  applied  to 
nursery  ground,^  at  the  time  of  cropping  with  nursery  arti- 
18* 


210 


NURSERY. 


cles ; but  if  it  be  necessary  to  enrich  it,  this  should  be  done 
by  a manured  crop  of  onions,  turnips,  lettuces,  or  the  like. 
Potatoes  should  never  go  before  a crop  of  seedlings,  even 
of  the  coarser  sorts,  as  ash,  oak,  or  chestnut ; because  pota- 
toes never  can  be  taken  clean  out  of  the  ground ; and,  it 
being  indispensable  to  pull  up  those  which  rise  among  the 
tree  seedlings,  many  of  these  unavoidably  come  up  along 
with  them.’’ — NlcoVs  Planter'* s Calender. 

“ A rotting  ground  will  be  required  for  the  preparation 
of  certain  seeds,  by  mixing  them  with  sand,  ashes,  or  soil, 
and  leaving  them  there  for  different  periods,  from  six 
months  to  two  years,  to  rot  off  their  interior  coverings.  On 
a small  scale,  a portion  of  the  compost  ground  of  the  kitchen- 
garden  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  If  the  scale  is  large, 
an  area  of  a few  square  poles  should  be  set  apart  for  bed- 
ding in  plants  taken  up  for  replanting,  or  w^hat  is  called 
laying  in  by  the  heels,  or  sloughing  : this  is  generally  called 
the  bedding  ground^  or,  in  Scotland,  the  sloughing  ground.'*'* — 
Loudon. 

‘‘  It  has  been  a received  opinion,  that  the  soil  for  a nur- 
sery should  not  be  made  rich,  as  the  plants,  when  removed 
to  a more  fertile  soil,  will  flourish  more  luxurianfl|| ; but 
later  observation  has  decided,  that  the  reverse  of  this  will 
be  found  correct.  There  is  a close  analogy  between  vegeta- 
ble and  animal  life  ; and  it  is  a dictate  of  nature,  that  both  re- 
quire a full  supply  of  nutriment,  from  their  earliest  existence. 
It  would  be  absurd  to  suppose,  that  the  tender  roots  of 
young  seedlings  are  capable  of  drawing  sufficient  nutriment 
from  a rank,  barren,  and  uncultivated  soil,  and  those  that 
are  barely  supported,  or  nearly  starved  at  first,  will  never 
afterwards  become  vigorous,  stately,  and  handsome,  though 
surrounded  by  the  richest  mould.  Repeated  experiments 
have  proved  that  a strong  and  vigorous  plant,  that  has 
grown  up  quickly,  and  arrived  at  considerable  magnitude 
in  a short  time,  never  fails  to  grow  better,  after  transplant- 
ing, than  another  of  the  same  size,  that  is  older  and  stunted 
in  its  growth.  Where  the  soil  is  poor  and  lean,  trees,  in 
every  stage  of  their  growth,  are  observed  to  be  languid, 
weak,  and  stunted  ; while  those  reared  in  a good,  mellow 
soil,  always  assume  a free  growth,  and  advance  with 
strength  and  vigour.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the 
ground  to  be  occupied  for  a fruit  nursery,  requires  to  bo 
made  rich  and  fertile.  The  soil  should  also  be  deep,  well 
pulverized, ‘and  cleared  of  all  roots  and  weeds.  The  seeds 
may  be  sown  either  in  autymn  or  April,  and^  in  one  yeaf 


NURSERY. 


211 


after,  the  young  plants  may  be  taken  up,  and  replanted  in 
the  nursery.  It  is  important  that  the  situation  be  such  as 
to  admit  of  a free  circulation  of  air,  and  open  to  the  sun, 
that  the  plants  may  be  preserved  in  a healthy  condition. 
Plants,  reared  in  a confined  and  shaded  situation,  in  a large 
town,  and  removed  to  an  open  exposure  in  the  country, 
will  long  continue  in  a debilitated  condition ; like  a puny 
city  invalid,  their  growth  will  be  greatly  impeded,  and 
many  years  will  elapse  before  they  attain  to  a state  of  vig- 
our, health,  and  hardihood. 

“ In  MarshalVs  Rural  Economy  it  is  directed,  that  the 
seedling  plants,  when  taken  from  the  seed-bed,  be  sorted 
agreeably  to  the  strength  of  their  roots,  that  they  may  rise 
evenly  together.  The  tap,  or  large  bottom  root,  should  be 
taken  olf,  and  the  longer  side-root-lets  should  be  shortened. 
The  young  plants  should  then  be  set  in  rows,  three  feet 
apart,  and  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  asunder,  in  the 
rows  ; care  being  taken  not  to  cramp  the  roots,  but  to  bed 
them  evenly  and  horizontally  among  the  mould.  In  strict- 
ness of  management,  they  ought,  two  years  previous  to  their 
being  transferred  to  the  orchard,  to  be  transplanted  into 
unmanured,  double-dug  ground,  four  feet  every  way  apart, 
in  order  that  the  feeding  fibres  may  be  brought  so  near  the 
stem,  that  they  may  be  removed  with  it  into  the  orchard, 
instead  of  being,  as  they  generally  are,  left  behind  in  the 
nursery.  Hence,  in  this  second  transplanting,  as  in  the 
first,  the  branches  of  the  root  should  not  be  left  too  long, 
but  ought  to  be  shortened  in  such  a manner  as  to  induce 
them  to  form  a regular  globular  roof,  sufficiently  small  to  be 
removed  with  all  their  plants,  yet  sufficiently  large  to  give 
it  firmness  and  vigour  in  the  plantation.” — Thacher'^s  Or- 
chardist. 

A nursery  should  not  be  on  a spot  where  fruit-trees  have 
lately  grown,  or,  indeed,  any  other  deep-rooted  plants. 
Miller  advises  to  have  a nursery  of  forest-trees  in  the  place 
where  the  forest  is  designed  to  be  planted,  so  that  ^ suffi- 
cient number  of  the  trees  may  be  left  standing,  after  the 
rest  have  been  removed. 

If  a nursery  be  in  such  a situation  that  the  young  trees 
are  in  danger  of  being  broken  down  by  deep  snows,  either 
the  fence  on  the  windward  side  should  be  made  so  open 
that  the  wind  may  have  a free  passage  through  it,  and  drive 
away  the  snow,  or  else  the  trees  may  be  defended  by 
staking.  A stake  a little  taller  than  the  tree,  made  of  a 
slip  of  board,  should  be  set  close  on  the  windward  side, 


212 


OAK. 


and  the  top  of  the  tree  fastened  to  it  v»  ith  a soft  string ; or 
two  such  stakes  may  be  so  set  that  the  upper  ends  may 
meet  over  the  top  of  the  tree.” — Deane. 

The  seeds  which  are  sown  in  a nursery  should  be  se- 
lected from  the  best  sorts  of  fruit.  See  p.  17  of  this  work. 

OAK. — Quercus. — Miller’s  Gardener"* s Dictionary  says, 
oaks  are  best  produced  from  the  acorns  in  the  places  where 
the  trees  are  to  remain  ; because  those  which  are  transplant- 
ed will  not  grow  to  so  large  a size,  nor  remain  sound  so  long. 
He  advises  to  plant  the  acorns  as  soon  as  they  are  ripe  in 
October,  which  will  come  up  in  the  following  April.  But, 
says  Dr.  Deane,  ‘‘  Another  writer  directs  that  the  acorns 
be  gathered  in  autumn,  and  keptiji  a box  or  boxes  of  sand 
till  the  following  spring.  Then  open  them,  and  carefully 
plant  those  of  them  which  are  sprouted,  which,  he  says, 
will  not  fail  to  come  up.  But  no  time  should  be  allowed  for 
the  sprouts  to  dry.  I incline  to  prefer  this  method,  especially 
since  I have  tried  that  which  is  recommended  by  Miller  with- 
out success.  Not  one  in  a hundred  ever  came  up.” 

The  ground  designed  for  a plantation  of  oaks,  according 
to  Miller,  should  have  a good  and  durable  fence,  shouM  be 
prepared  by  thre^  or  four  ploughings  and  harro wings — the 
acorns  should  be  taken  from  the  largest  and  most  thrifty  trees 
— ^be  sowed  in  drills  about  four  feet  asunder,  and  two  inches 
deep,  and  two  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  The  ground  should 
be  ploughed  and  hoed  among  them,  during  the  first  eight  or 
ten  years  ; after  two  years,  some  of  the  plants  should  be 
drawn  out  where  they  are  too  close ; and  so  from  time  to 
time,  as  they  grow  larger,  till  they  come  to  be  eight  feet 
distance  each  way,  when  they  will  want  no  thinning  for  a 
long  time.  But  after  the  trees  come  to  be  large,  he  thinks 
twenty-five  or  thirty  feet  apart  will  be  the  right  distance. 

The  oak  thrives  better  in  hilly  than  in  boggy  ground, 
but  flourishes  most  luxuriantly  on  rich,  black  soils,  or  in 
strong,  moist  loam.  It  will  grow,  however,  on  almost  any 
soil  that  is  not  too  wet. 

The  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agricul- 
ture have  offered  a premium  of  one  hundred  dollars  for 
the  best  plantation  of  white  oak  trees,  not  less  than  one 
acre,  nor  fewer  than  one  thousand  trees  per  acre,  to  be 
raised  from  the  acorn,  and  which  trees  shall  be  in  the  best 
thriving  state  on  the  first  of  September,  1827. 

It  is  observed,  in  the  work  called  Gleanings^  &c.  on 
Husbandry  and  Gardening^  that  oaks,  “ when  very  young, 
may  be  transplanted  twice  or  thrice,  if,  each  time,  the  prin- 


OKRA. ONION. 


213 


cipal  root  is  cut  off.  Oaks  raised  from  the  acorn  without 
removing,  on  account  of  the  tap-root  striking  down  into 
the  ground,  where  there  is  less  nourishment,  grow  slowly, 
but  are,  when  they  arrive  at  timber,  the  best ; being  gene- 
rally fuller  at  heart,  and  more  strong  and  lasting.  Oak 
plants  of  one  or  two  year?;’  growth,  after  they  have  taken 
root,  are  often  cut  off  a little  above  the  ground,  if  they  are 
stunted  or  crooked,  and  the  second  shoot  is  trusted  to  for 
the  tree ; as  it  is  found  to  grow  with  greater  luxuriance 
than  the  first 

OKRA. — Hibiscus  esculentm, — A valuable  garden  plant, 
easily  propagated  by  seeds  sown  in  May.  It  is  said  to  be 
excellent  in  cookery,  as  a sauce.  Its  ripe  seeds,  burned, 
and  used  as  coffee,  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  there- 
from. It  should  be  planted  about  an  inch  deep,  and  hoed 
two  or  three  times,  like  peas.  McMahon  says,  “ It  may  be 
sown  with  certainty  of  success  at  the  time  that  Indian  corn 
is  planted.  Draw  drills  about  an  inch  deep,  and  four  feet 
asunder,  into  which  drop  the  seeds  at  the  distance  of  eight 
inches  from  one  another,  or  rather  drop  two  or  three  in 
each  place,  lest  one  should  not  grow,  and  cover  them  an 
inch  in  depth.  As  they  advance  in  growth,  earth  them  up 
two  or  three  times  as  you  do  peas,  and  they  will  produce 
abundantly.” 

ONION. — Allium  cepa, — The  common  bulbous  onion  is 
a biennial  plant,  supposed  to  be  a native  of  Asia.  There 
are  many  varieties  of  this  plant.  Those  mentioned  in  Mr. 
Russell’s  Catalogue  are  the  following : — 


White  Portugal, 
Yellow, 

Genuine  Madeira, 


Top  or  tree  onionj 

Silver-skinned, 

Strasburgh, 


Large  red, 
Potato  onion. 


The  Strasburg  is  most  generally  adopted  for  principal 
crops.  The  silver-skinned  is  reckoned  among  the  best 
for  pickling.  “ The  top  or  tree  onion  has  the  remarkable 
property  of  producing  the  onions  at  the  top  of  the  stalk, 
and  is  valuable  for  domestic  use,  particularly  for  pickling, 
in  which  they  are  excellent,  and  superior  in  flavour  to  the 
common  kinds.  It  is  also  used  for  any  other  purpose  that 
onions  usually  are.  It  is  perennial,  and  propagated  by 
planting  the  bulbs  in  spring  or  autumn,  eithey  the  roots, 
bulbs,  or  those  on  the  top  of  the  stalks.” — RusseWs  Cator 
logue. 

Soil  and  culture, — The  onion,  “to  attain  a good  size,  re- 
quires rich,  mellow  ground,  on  a dry  sub-soil.  If  the  soil  be 
poor  or  exhausted,  recruit  it  with  a compost  of  fresh  loam 


214 


ONION, 


and  well-consumed  dung,  avoiding  to  use  stable-dung  in  a 
rank,  unreduced  state.  Turn  in  the  manure  to  a moderate 
depth  ; and,  in  digging  the  ground,  let  it  be  broken  tine. 
Grow  pickles  in  poor,  light  ground,  to  keep  them  small. 
The  market-gardeners  at  Hexham  sow  their  onion-seed  on 
the  same  ground  for  twenty  or  more  years  in  succession,  but 
annually  manure  the  soil.  After  digging  and  levelling  the 
ground,  the  manure,  in  a very  rotten  state,  is  spread  upon  it^ 
the  onion-seed  sown  upon  the  manure,  and  covered  with 
earth  from  the  alleys,  and  the  crops  are  abundant,  and  ex- 
cellent in  quality.” — HorL  Trans,  i.  121. 

Deane’s  New  England  Farmer  says,  A spot  of  ground 
should  be  chosen  for  them,  which  is  moist  and  sandy ; be- 
cause they  require  much  heat  and  a considerable  degree  of 
moisture.  A low  situation,  where  the  sand  has  been  washed 
down  from  a neighbouring  hill,  is  very  proper  for  them. 
And  if  it  be  the  wash  of  a sandy  road,  so  much  the  better. 
The  most  suitable  manures  are  old,  rotten  cow  and  horse- 
dung  mixed,  ashes,  but  especially  soot.  A small  quantity 
of  ashes  or  sand,  or  both,  should  be  spread  over  them  after 
sowing,  especially  if  the  soil  be  not  sandy.  And  it  is  not 
amiss  to  roll  the  ground  after  sowing ; or  harden  the  sur- 
face with  the  back  of  a shovel.” 

Mr.  Armstrong  says,  It  is  propagated  either  by  the  seed 
or  by  the  bulbs.  In  the  first  case,  you  sow  in  shallow 
drills,  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart ; cover  with  mould, 
and,  when  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them,  so  that  they  may 
stand  three  or  four  inches  from  each  other.  The  sooner 
this  is  done  in  the  spring,  after  the  earth  has  acquired  a 
temperature  favourable  to  vegetation,  the  better  will  be 
your  crop.  It  only  remains  to  keep  the  earth  loose  and 
clean  about  the  roots,  and,  if  the  vegetation  be  too  vigorous, 
to  break  down  the  tops,  so  as  to  determine  the  juices  to  the 
bulbs.  In  the  other  case  you  but  employ  the  small  and 
half-grown  onion  of  the  preceding  fall  instead  of  seed.” 

Mr.  Hubbard,  of  Concord,  Mass,  in  an  article  published 
in  the  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  89,  says,  ‘‘  The  soil  ought 
to  be  a deep^  black  loam^  that  will  crumble  fine  when  the 
plough  passes  through  it ; such  as  is  easily  raked  smooth 
and  pulverized.  A heavy,  clammy  soil,  that  adheres  to- 
gether when  both  wet  and  dry — a dry,  clayey,  or  a sandy 
soil,  will  not  answer.  I know  of  no  vegetable  that  is  so  dif- 
ficult to  please  with  a soil,  as  the  onion  : though  they  will 
grow  well,  yet  they  will  not  ripen,. but  hold  green  through- 
out the  fall,  and  many  of  them  will  be  what  are  generally 


ONION. 


215 


known  by  the  name  of  sculliwiSy  with  the  neck  stiff  and 
green  ; whereas  those  on  suitable  ground  are  ripe  and  dry 
by  the  first  of  September.  Rotten  stable-manure,  made  in 
the  winter  preceding  the  spring  in  which  it  is  put  on  the 
laud,  is  generally  made  use  of,  to  be  spread  on  the  ground, 
and  ploughed  in.  I have  a piece  of  land  four  rods  square, 
on  which  onions  have  been  raised,  I suppose,  these  eighty 
years  ; and  since  I have  improved  it,  I have  yearly  spread 
upon  it  five  cart-loads  of  manure,  such  as  are  usually 
drawn  by  one  pair  of  oxen ; and  have  raised  from  four  to 
seven  hundred  bunches  of  onions  upon  it,  at  three  and  a 
half  pounds  to  the  bunch,  of  which  about  sixteen  make 
a bushel.” 

Mr.  Hubbard  puts  the  seed  into  the  ground  as  soon  as 
the  frost  is  out,  and  it  is  sufficiently  dry  to  be  worked; 
frequently  the  latter  part  of  March,  but  more  frequently 
in  the  first  days  of  April.  He  has  always  planted  them  in 
hills^  which  is  the  general  practice  in  Concord.  ‘‘  My 
method  of  preparing  the  ground  and  planting  the  seed  iS; 
iirst^  carry  on  the  manure,  and  spread  it  as  even  as  possible, 
when  the  ground  is  to  be  ploughed  ^eep ; then  let  the  plat 
be  divided  into  beds,  about  three  feet  nine  inches  wide ; 
to  do  which  the  easier  way  is  to  stretch  a line  across,  lining 
one  bed  at  a time ; after  this,  let  a man,  with  a shovel  or  a 
potato-hoe,  make  an  alley  through  the  whole  piece,  to 
separate  the  beds,  about  four  inches  deep,  and  sufficiently 
wide  to  admit  a person  to  walk  in  it.  Then  let  the  lumps 
be  beat  fine,  levelling  the  ground,  and  shaping  the  beds ; 
which,  after  being  raked  smooth,  must  be  divided  into 
squares  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  This  is  best  done  by  a line ; 
or  it  is  sufficiently  exact  to  draw  a heavy  rope  backwards 
and  forwards.  Now  let  the  seeds,  six  or  seven  in  a hill, 
more  or  less,  be  dropped  into  the  corners  of  the  squares, 
and  covered  with  mould,  about  half  an  inch  deep,  pressed 
down  with  the  hand.” 

A writer  for  the  N,  E,  Farmer^  vol.  iii.  p.  249,  with  the 
signature  J.  M.,  recommends  a moist,  black  soil,”  as  best, 
but  says  “ a free,  deep  loam  will  answer  very  well.”  “ The 
onion  is  not  by  nature  inclined  to  root  deep.  You  must 
give  it  a hard  bottom  to  grow  on,  and  keep  your  manure 
on  the  surface  within  reach  of  the  roots ; then  they  will 
grow  large,  flat,  and  handsome.” — Advises  to  sow  the  same 
piece  for  several  successive  years.  “ I have  always  sowed 
onions  in  drills^  about  eighteen  inches  apart,  to  give  fair 
play  to  the  hoe.  Onions  must  be  sowed  as  early  j^>ossi' 


216 


ONION, 


ble  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  : in  this  climate,  if 
the  seed  is  not  in  the  ground  before  the  first  of  May,  there 
is  but  little  chance  for  a crop.  It  must  be  covered  slightly, 
and  stamped  well  over  with  the  hoe  to  close  it  well,  I 
would  recommend,  as  most  essential,  to  sow  the  seed  spar- 
ingly. Even  the  best  gardeners  are  apt  to  put  in  too  much 
seed.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  young  plants  come 
up  so  thick  that  they  run  up  spiry  and  weak ; and,  when 
you  come  to  thin  them,  you  find  great  difficulty  to  pull  up 
so  many  without  injuring  those  that  you  leave ; and  the 
worst  injury  is  what  you  do  to  the  roots,  which  you  tear 
and  loosen.  Therefore  have  seed  of  your  own  raising,  or 
that  you  know  is  fresh,  and  sow  sparingly.” 

In  the  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  hi.  p.  265,  are  the  observations 
of  I.  Tucker,  Esq.  of  Salem,  Mass.,  who  says,  “ The  land 
should  be  ploughed  about  four  inches  in  depth,  and  har- 
rowed so  as  to  make  it  very  fine;  the  manure,  which 
should  always  be  a rich  compost,  should  be  ploughed  in 
and  thoroughly  mixed;  the  land  should  then  be  rolled  with 
a heavy  roller,  to  form  a close  bottom  for  the  bulbs  to  form 
upon,  and  at  the  same  time  not  so  hard  as  to  prevent  the 
small  roots  of  the  plant  from  penetrating.  The  best  onions 
and  the  largest  crops  are  produced  where  the  bulbs  grow 
almost  entirely  on  the  top  of  the  ground.  After  the  ground 
has  been  rolled,  and  before  the  seeds  are  sown,  the  beds 
should  be  raked  with  a sharp  iron  rake,  to  prepare  a finely 
pulverized  drill  for  reception  of  the  seed ; and,  after  the 
seeds  are  sown,  the  drill  should  be  pressed  with  a board  and 
sufficient  weight  to  bring  the  earth  into  close  contact  with 
the  seed.  Care  should  be  taken  in  selecting  seed  ; none 
should  be  sown  but  such  as  will  be  sure  to  vegetate  ; and 
it  would  be  well  if  no  more  seed  were  to  be  sown  than 
you  would  have  plants  to  remain  and  grow  in  the  drill. 
It  would  be  superfluous  to  add  that,  if  you  would  have  a 
good  crop  of  onions,  you  must  not  permit  a crop  of  weeds 
to  grow  in  the  same  bed  ; they  will  not  grow  well  to- 
gether.” 

Mr.  Adams  Knight,  of  Newbury,  Mass.,  received  a premi- 
um of  twenty  dollars  for  having  raised,  in  1822,  the  greatest 
quantity  of  onions,  being  six  hundred  and  fifty-one  bushels 
on  one  acre.  The  soil  is  a rich,  gravelly  loam,  with  a grav- 
el bottom : in  1821  it  was  cultivated  with  onions  and  cabba- 
ges, and  was  manured  with  about  five  cords  of  barn  manure, 
and  produced  a good  crop : after  the  crop  was  off  the  ground, 
there  were  five  cords  ot  bam  manure  and  two  and  a half 


ONION. 


217 


of  leached  ashes  ploughed  in  : in  April,  1822,  it  was  once 
ploughed,  and  sowed  in  rows  14  inches  apart,  which  took 
between  three  and  four  pounds  of  seed  : in  the  course  of 
the  season,  it  was  hoed  between  the  rows,  and  weeded  four 
times  : in  September,  the  onions  were  harvested,  and  there 
were  six  hundred  and  fifty-one  bushels.  The  entire  ex- 
pense of  cultivating  this  acre  of  onions,  including  twenty- 
one  dollars  and  thirty-seven  cents,  the  cost  of  the  manure, 
was  fifty-seven  dollars  and  thirty-eight  cents.” 

The  work  entitled  Gleanings^  &c.  in  Husbandry^  directs 
to  sow  onions,  if  possible,  in  a dry  time,  and  to  tread  them 
in,  in  light  ground. 

Loudon  says,  When  onions  are  to  be  drawn  young, 
two  ounces  of  seed  will  be  requisite  for  a bed  four  feel  by 
twenty-four;  but  when  to  remain  for  bulbing,  one  ounce 
will  suffice  for  a bed  five  feet  by  twenty-four  feet.” 

Deane  says,  The  ground  should  be  dug  or  ploughed  in 
autumn,  not  very  deep ; and  then  made  very  fine  in  the 
spring,  and  all  the  gross  roots  and  roots  of  weeds  taken 
out;  then  laid  in  beds  four  feet  wide.  Four  rows  of  holes 
are  made  in  a bed,  the  rows  ten  inches  apart,  and  the  ho*es 
in  the  rows  ten.  About  half  a dozen  seeds  are  put  in  a 
hole,  or  more,  if  there  be  any  danger  of  their  not  coming 
up  well,  and  buried  an  inch  under  the  surface.  They  will 
grow  very  well  in  bunches.  Though  the  largest  onions 
are  those  which  grow  singly  some  inches  apart,  those  which 
are  more  crowded  produce  larger  crops.  And  the  middle- 
sized  onions  are  better  for  eating  than  the  largest.”  The 
last  week  in  April  is  the  proper  time  for  sowing,  according 
to  this  author. 

The  course  of  culture  recommended  by  Abercrombie  for 
the  summer,  and  what  he  calls  winter-1  aid-by  crops,  is  as 
follows  : — Allot  an  open  compartment,  and  lay  it  out  in 
beds,  from  three  to  five  feet  in  width.  Sow  broad-cast, 
equally  over  the  rough  surface,  moderately  thick,  bed  and 
bed  separately,  and  rake  in  the  seed  lengthwise  each  bed, 
in  a regular  manner.  When  the  plants  are  three  or  four 
inches  high,  in  May  and  June,  let  them  be  timely  cleared 
from  weeds,  and  let  the  principal  crop  be  thinned,  either  by 
hand,  or  with  a small,  two-inch  hoe  ; thinning  the  plants  to 
intervals  of  from  three  to  five  inches  in  the  main  crops  de- 
signed for  full  bulbing ; or,  some  beds  may  remain  niode- 
rately  thick  for  drawing  young,  by  successive  thinnings,  to 
the  above  distance.  For  the  Spanish,  from  seed  obtained 
19 


218 


ONION. 


immediately  from  Spain,  the  final  distance  should  be  six  or 
seven  inches.  Keep  the  whole  very  clear  from  weeds,  in 
their  young  and  advancing  state.  The  plants  will  begin 
bulbing  a little  in  June  ; more  fully  in  July ; and  be  fully 
grown  in  August  to  large  bulbs.  In  July  or  August,  when 
the  leaves  begin  to  dry  at  the  points,  and  turn  yellow,  lay 
the  stems  down  close  to  the  ground,  bending  them  about 
two  inches  up  the  neck,  which  promotes  the  ripening  of 
the  bulb,  particularly  in  wet  or  backward  seasons.  The 
crop  of  full  bulbers  will  be  ready  to  take  up  towards  the 
middle  of  August.  When  the  necks  shrink,  and  the  leaves 
decay,  puU  them  wholly  up  in  due  time : spread  them  on  a 
compartment  of  dry  ground,  in  the  full  sun,  to  dry  and  har- 
den completely,  turning  them  every  two  or  three  days ; and 
in  a week  or  fortnight  they  will  be  ready  to  house.  Clear 
off  the  grossest  part  of  the  leaves,  stalks,  and  fibres ; then 
deposit  the  bulbs  in  some  close,  dry  apartment,  in  which 
sometimes  turn  them  over,  and  pick  out  any  that  decay ; 
and  they  will  thus  keep  sound  and  good,  all  winter  and 
spring,  till  May  following.” 

Culture  of  a winter-standing  crop^  to  be  drawn  for  use  the 
succeeding  spring. — “ Allot  a soil  rather  more  light  and 
sandy  for  the  summer  crop,  on  a sub-soil  a1  least  equally 
dry.  The  compartment,  especially  for  any  of  the  biennial 
kinds,  should  lie  warm  and  sheltered.  The  beds  may  be 
Jhree  or  four  feet  wide,  running  parallel  to  the  best  aspect. 
The  medium  time  for  the  principal  sowing  falls  about  the 
7th  of  August;  and,  for  a secondary  crop,  near  the  25th. 
Sew  the  bulbing  sorts  and  the  Welsh  perennial  separately; 
distribute  the  seed  pretty  thickly.  If  the  soil  be  dry  and 
light,  tread  down  the  seed  evenly  along  the  surface  of  each 
bed,  and  then  rake  it  in  neatly.  When  the  plants  are  come 
np  one,  two,  or  three  inches,  carefully  hand-weed  in  time, 
before  any  rising  weeds  spread ; not  thinning  the  plants, 
because  they  should  remain  thick,  for  their  chance  in  win- 
ter, and  to  be,  by  degrees,  drawn  thinningly,  for  use  in 
salads  and  otherwise ; bjit  reserve  a principal  supply  to  re- 
main till  spring.  Observe,  the  Welsh  onion,  in  particular, 
commonly  dies  down  to  the  ground  about  mid’-winter ; but 
the  root  part,  remaining  wholly  sound,  sends  up  a new, 
vigorous  stem  in  February  and  March.  At  the  opening  of 
spring,  let  the  whole  of  both  sorts  be  well  cleared  from 
weeds ; they  will  continue  fit  to  draw  young  during  all  the 
/spring  months,  till  May ; then  Jet  sot»e  of  the  bulbous  kinds 


ONION. 


219 


be  thinned,  to  remain  for  early  bulbing  in  June  and  July; 
but,  as  they  will  soon  after  shoot  up  in  stalk,  they  are  chief- 
ly for  present  use,  not  being  eligible  as  keeping-onions.” 

To  preserve  onions  through  the  winter,  they  may  be  tied 
together,  forming  what  are  called  ropes  or  bunches  of  on- 
ions, and  kept  in  a dry  and  cool  cellar.  Moisture  rots,  and 
warmth  causes  them  to  vegetate.  A considerable  degree 
of  cold  will  not  injure  them,  for  they  resist  frost  in  conse- 
quence of  a spirituous  substance  of  which  they  are  in  part 
composed.  Searing  their  fibrous  roots  with  a hot  iron  will 
prevent  them  from  sprouting. 

To  obtain  seed  from  onions,  they  should  be  planted  early 
in  beds,  about  nine  inches  apart.  The  largest  and  soundest 
are  best.  They  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds;  and, 
when  the  heads  of  the  flowers  begin  to  appear,  each  plant 
must  have  a stake  about  four  feet  long,  and  its  stems  be 
loosely  tied  to  the  stake  by  a soft  string.  Or  the  stems 
may  be  supported  by  stakes,  six  or  eight  feet  apart,  and 
pack-thread  or  rope-yarn  fastened  from  one  to  the  other, 
a little  below  the  heads.  When  ripe,  the  heads  are  to  be 
cut  (or  the  seed  will  shed)  and  spread  in  the  sun,  on  coarse 
cloths,  to  dry;  being,  however,  taken  under  shelter  at  night, 
and  in  rain.  When  the  seed  is  beaten  out,  it  is  to  be  dried 
one  day  in  the  sun,  and  then  put  in  bags  to  preserve  for 
sowing. 

Dr.  Deane,  and  Mr.  Nicholson,  author  of  the  Farmer^s 
Assista/nt^  condemn  the  practice  of  beating  or  breaking 
down  the  tops  of  onions  in  order  to  increase  the  size  of  the 
root.  Mr.  Nicholson  observed,  The  practice  is  undoubt- 
edly injurious,  as  we  have  seen  confirmed  by  experiment.” 
Culture  of  the  potato  onion, — This  variety,  erroneously 
supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Egypt  by  the  British 
army  about  1805,  was  grown  in  Driver’s  nursery,  in  1796, 
and  has  been  known  in  Devonshire  for  upwards  of  twenty 
years.  It  is  thus  cultivated  at  Arundel  Castle,  by  Maher : — 
Having  thoroughly  prepared  the  ground,  and  formed  it  into 
beds  four  feet  wide,  ‘ I draw  lines  the  whole  length,  three 
to  each  bed,  and,  with  the  end  of  the  rake-handle,  make  a 
mark  (not  a drill)  on  the  surface;  on  this  mark  I place  the 
onions,  ten  inches  apart;  I then  cover  them  with  leaf- 
mould,  rotten  dung,  or  any  other  light  compost,  just  so  that 
the  crowns  appear  exposed.  Notliing  more  is  necessary 
to  be  done  until  they  shoot  up  their  tops  ; then,  on  a dry 
day,  they  are  earthed  up,  like  potatoes,  and  kept  free  from 
weeds,  until  they  are  taken  up.  In  the  west  of  England, 


220 


ORC  HARD. 


where  this  kind  of  onion  is  much  cultivated,  I understand 
that  it  is  the  practice  to  plant  on  the  shortest  day,  and  take 
up  on  the  longest.  The  smallest  onions  used  for  planting 
swell,  and  become  Very  fine  and  large,  as  well  as  yield  off- 
sets ; the  middle-sized  and  larger  bulbs  produce  greater 
clusters.’ — Hort.  Trans,  vol.  iii.  p.  305. 

Dymond  states,  {Hort,  Trans,  vol.  iii,  p.  306,)  that  in 
Devonshire  it  is  planted  in  rows,  twelve  inches  apart,  and 
six  inches’  distance  in  the  row ; that  the  plants  are  earthed 
up  as  they  grow,  and  that  the  smaller  bulbs  yield  a greater 
increase  than  the  larger.  A similar  practice  is  adopted  by 
some  Scotch  cultivators. — Caled,  Hort,  Mem,  vol.  i.  p.  343, 
and  vol.  iv.  p.  216. 

“ Wedgewood  does  not  earth  up,  and  finds  his  bulbs  ac- 
quire a much  larger  size  than  when  that  practice  is  adopted. 
~Hort,  Trans,  vol.  iii.  p.  403.  The  fact  is,  as  we  have 
observed  in  generalizing  on  the  subject  of  earthing  up,  sur- 
face-bulbs, as  the  onion,  turnip,  &c.,  are  always  prevented 
from  attaining  their  full  size  by  that  operation,  whatever 
they  may  gain  in  other  respects.” — Loudon, 

Use, — The  properties  of  onions  in  no  respect  differ  from 
those  of  garlic,  excepting  that  the  former  are  less  pungent, 
(see  Garlic,)  and  are,  therefore,  more  generally  used  for 
culinary  purposes.  Many  persons,  however,  dislike  them  on 
account  of  the  strong  and  disagreeable  smell  which  they  com- 
municate to  the  breath.  But  this  inconvenience  is  obviated 
by  eating  a few  raw  leaves  of  parsley,  immediately  after  par- 
taking of  onions,  the  scent  of  which  is  thus  nearly  removed, 
and  they  are,  at  the  same  time,  rendered  more  easy  of  di- 
gestion. Vinegar  also  answers  the  same  purpose.” — Dom, 
Encyc, 

ORCHARD. — Soil, — Any  soil  is  suitable  for  an  or- 
chard, which  produces  good  crops  of  grain,  grass,  or  gar- 
den vegetables  ; but  a good,  deep,  sandy  loam,  not  too  dry, 
nor  very  moist,  is  to  be  preferred.  In  the  stiffest  part  of  the 
ground,  you  may  plant  pear-trees ; in  the  lighter,  apples, 
plums,  and  cherries;  and,  in  the  lightest,  peach,  nectarine, 
and  apricots. 

Aspect, — A south-eastern  aspect  is  generally  recom- 
mended ; but,  when  this  exposes  the  trees  to  the  sea  winds, 
a south-western  maybe  better.  Some  recommend  a north- 
ern aspect,  and  planting  trees  the  north  side  of  a wall,  to 
prevent  them  from  budding  and  blowing  so  early  in  the 
spring  as  to  expose  them  to  frosts. 

Preparation  of  the  ground, — If  the  land  be  swarded,  it 


ORCHARD.  221 

should  be  broken  up  and  tilled  at  least  one  year  before  the 
trees  are  planted. 

Manure, — Rotten  leaves,  or  tlje  mould  formed  by  the  de- 
composition of  leaves,  is  recommended  by  Forsyth.  Com- 
post, or  rich  earth,  is  said  to  be  preferable  to  dung,  which 
encourages  insects  and  blight.  M‘Mahon  says,  “ It  is  well 
known  that  where  hogs  and  poultry  are  constantly  running 
over  the  ground,  the  trees  seldom  fail  of  a crop,  which  is  the 
best  proof  that  manure  is  necessary.  Any  manure  will  suit 
an  orcnard  ; but  the  sweepings  of  cow-houses,  hog-pens, 
slaughter-houses,  poultry  and  pigeon-houses,  emptying  of 
drains,  &c.  are  more  disposed  to  facilitate  the  growth  of  fruit- 
trees  than  stable-manure.  However,  any  kind  of  manure 
is  better  than  none  at  all.” 

Hog-dung  is  accounted  to  have  a peculiar  virtue  in  in 
vigorating  weak  trees.  Rotted  turf,  or  any  vegetable  ref- 
use, is  a general  manure,  excellent  for  all  soils  not  already 
too  rich.  For  an  exhausted  soil,  where  a fruit-tree,  which 
has  been  an  old,  profitable  occupant,  is  wished  to  be  con- 
tinued, a dressing  of  animal  matter  is  a powerful  restora- 
tive ; such  as  hogs’  or  bullocks’  blood,  offal  from  the 
slaughter-house,  refuse  of  skins  and  leather,  decomposed 
carrion  ; also  urine  diluted  with  water.  In  a soil  ^Vhich 
does  not  effervesce  with  acids,  a little  lime,  dug  in  a spit 
deep,  is  beneficial  to  fruit-trees.” — Abercrombie. 

Distance  of  trees  in  an  orchard. — It  should  be  considered, 
at  the  time  of  planting,  to  what  size  the  trees  are  likely  to 
grow.  And  they  should  be  set  so  far  asunder,  that  their 
limbs  will  not  be  likely  to  interfere  with  each  other,  when 
they  arrive  at  full  growth.  In  a soil  that  suits  them  best 
they  will  become  largest.  Twenty-five  feet  may  be  the 
right  distance  in  some  soils  ; but  thirty-five  feet  will  not  be 
too  much  in  the  best,  or  even  forty.” — Deane. 

Cropping. — ‘‘  It  is  proper  to  crop  the  ground  among  new- 
planted  orchard-trees,  for  a few  years,  in  order  to  defray 
the  expense  of  hoeing  and  cultivating  it ; which  should  be 
done  until  the  temporary  plants  are  removed,  and  the  whole 
be  sown  down  to  grass.  But  it  is  by  no  means  advisable 
to  carry  the  system  of  cropping  with  vegetables  to  such  an 
excess  as  is  frequently  done.  If  the  bare  expense  of  culti- 
vating the  ground,  and  the  rent,  be  paid,  by  such  cropping, 
it  should  be  considered  enough.  As  the  trees  begin  to  pro- 
duce fruit,  begin  also  to  relinquish  cropping.  When  by 
their  productions  they  defray  all  expenses,  crop  no  longer,, 


222 


PARSLEY. 


I consider  these  as  being  wholesome  rules,  both  for  the 
trees  and  their  owners.” — Loudon, 

Orchards  which  are  laid  down  to  grass  last  longest;  but 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  ground  clear  of  weeds  and  grass, 
for  some  little  distance  from  the  roots.  They  may  be  pas- 
tured with  calves  and  swine,  and  by  the  latter  with  much 
advantage,  as  they  destroy  the  curculio,  (see  p.  175.)  Sheep 
may  be  admitted,  provided  the  trees  are  smeared  with  a 
coat  of  lime,  or  with  Forsyth’s  composition  ; but  large  cat- 
tle, which  can  reach  up  to  the  limbs  of  the  trees,  should 
not  be  suffered  to  run  in  an  orchard.  In  Germany,  they 
surround  the  roots  of  fruit-trees  in  grass-land  with  hemp- 
breakings,  not  only  near  the  stock,  but  for  some  distance 
from  the  tree.  The  breakings  of  flax  and  spent  tan  are 
also  recommended  for  the  same  purpose. 

Mr.  Benjamin  Wheeler,  of  Framingham,  Mass.,  gives 
the  following  prescription  of  a wash  for  fruit-trees,  which 
has  been  repeatedly  tested,  and  found  very  useful : — ‘‘  Dis- 
solve two  pounds  of  potash,  of  the  first  quality,  in  seven 
quarts  of  whaler,  for  the  bodies  of  the  trees.  If  the  limbs 
are  covered  with  moss  or  lice,  I take  a painter’s  brush,  and 
apply  the  solution  to  the  moss,  &c.,  w ith  care  not  to  touch 
the  leaves  or  buds.  It  may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the 
year,  when  w e are  most  at  leisure.  Once  in  from  two  to 
four  years  is  generally  sufficient.  I have  no  general  rule, 
how^ever,  but  wash  them  as  often  as  they  appear  to  need  it, 
which  is  always  wffien  the  bark  is  not  smooth.” 

PARSLEY. — Apium  petroselinum, — The  parsley  is  a har- 
dy biennial,  a native  of  Sardinia.  The  varieties,  according 
to  Loudon,  are. 


The  common,  plain-leaved,  {sel- 
dom cultivated ;) 

The  curled  or  thick-leaved,  {most 
^esteemed;) 


The  broad-leaved,  or  larg-e-rooted 
Hamburgh,  {cultivated  for  its  car- 
rot-shaped  root.) 


Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  mentions  the  following  kinds : 


Curled  or  double — Apium  petrose- 
linum  crispum ; 

Dwarf  curled,  {very  much  curled.) 
do.  do. 


Hamburgh,  or  large-rooted,  do.  var. 
tuberosum  ; 

Siberian,  {very  hardy,  single-leafed, 
and  of  fine flavour.) 


and  adds,  “ sown  from  April  to  August.  Parsley  seldom 
vegetates  under  five  weeks  after  sowing.  It  is  recom- 
mended to  soak  the  seed  twelve  hours  in  water  mixed 


with  sulphur.  This  process,  with  attentive  watering,  will 
cause  the  seed  to  vegetate  in  less  than  a fortnight.”  ’ The 


PARSLEY.  223 

seed  should  be  fresh.  Loudon  says,  two  years’  old  seed 
will  not  grow. 

Culture  of  the  pot-herb  kinds, — “ One  sowing  in  spring 
will  mostly  furnish  young  leaves  all  the  year ; though,  to 
answer  a constant  demand,  many  persons  make  successive 
sowings  from  February  [in  Great  Britain]  to  May.  Some 
also  sow  early  in.  autumn  for  young  parsley  in  winter  and 
spring;  but  such  a supply  is  better  provided  by  cutting 
down  established  plants.  Sow  in  a single  drill  along  the 
edge  of  any  compartment,  or  occasionally  in  rows  nine 
or  twelve  inches  asunder.  Draw  small  drills,  sometliing 
less  than  an  inch  deep ; in  which  drop  the  seed  moderate- 
ly thick,  and  cover  a little  above  half  an  inch.  The  plants 
will  come  up  in  three  or  four  weeks,  and,  when  two  or 
three  inches  high,  may  be  gathered  as  wanted,  all  the  sum- 
mer, winter,  and  following  spring  till  May,  when  they  will 
go  to  seed.  Have  always  a young  crop  sowed  timely  in 
the  spring  to  succeed  the  declining  old  plants.  In  gather- 
ing pot-herb  parsley,  cut  close  and  regular.  In  summer, 
when  the  plants  grow  rank,  yielding  more  leaves  than  can 
be  used,  cut  them  close  to  the  bottom,  and  they  will  shoot 
up  stocky,  and  in  a regular,  close  growth.  Observe  also 
to  do  the  same  in  autumn,  about  the  end  of  September, 
that  the  plants  may  form  heads  of  fresh  young  leaves  be- 
fore winter.  On  the  approach  of  frosty  weather,  protect 
them  with  haum,”  straw,  or  any  thing  else,  which  will 
serve  for  a defence  against  cold. 

Culture  of  Hamburgh  parsley, — “To  obtain  large  roots, 
allot  a compartment  where  the  soil  is  deep,  and  has  been 
well  digged.  Any  common  mould  will  suit,  if  dry  and  not 
too  rich.  Sow  in  February,  [soon  as  the  frost  is  well  out 
of  the  ground,]  March,  or  early  in  April,  in  one  or  more 
beds,  either  in  drills  nine  inches  asunder,  or  broad-cast, 
and  rake  in.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  to  nine  inches 
distance,  to  give  room  for  proper  growth  in  the  roots ; for 
use  in  August,  September,  October,  and  thence  till  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  On  the  approach  of  frost,  take  up  some 
roots,  and  preserve  them  in  sand.  A sowing  may  be  made 
the  third  week  in  June,  where  young  roots  are  wanted  in 
winter.” 

The  Siberian,  or  single-leafed  parsley,  is  cultivated  in 
fields.  It  may  be  sown  very  early  with  oats  or  other 
spring  grain,  mixed  with  grass  seed. — See  Encyc,  of  Ayr, 
parag.  5081. 

Uses, — This  herb  is  much  used  and  highly  valued  for 


224 


PARSNEP, 


culinary  purposes  as  a pot-herb,  for  garnishes,  &c.  The 
Hamburgh  parsley  is  esteemed  for  its  large,  carrot-like  root, 
drawn  in  autumn  and  winter  for  the  table.  In  field  culti- 
vation it  is  said  to  be  a preservative  from  rot  in  sheep,  and 
efficacious  in  curing  greasy  and  surfeited  horses,  &c. — See 
New  England  Farmer^  vol.  vi.  page  182. 

PARSNEP. — Pastinaca  saliva. — Loudon  observes,  that 
There  is  only  one  variety  of  the  parsnep  in  general  cul- 
tivation in  Great  Britain,  but  the  French  possess  three — 
the  Coquaine^  the  LisbonaisCj  and  the  Siam.  The  Coquaincy 
Dr.  Maculloch  informs  us,  {Caled.  Hart.  Mem.  vol.  1,  p. 
408,)  is  much  cultivated  in  Guernsey  and  Jersey.  The 
roots  run  sometimes  four  feet  deep,  and  are  rarely  so  small 
in  circumference  as  six  inches,  having  been  known  to 
reach  sixteen.  The  leaves  of  this  variety  grow  to  a con- 
siderable height,  and  proceed  from  the  whole  crown  of  the 
root.  The  Lisbonaise  does  not  extend  to  so  great  a depth 
as  the  Coquaine  ; but  the  root  is  equally  good  in  quality, 
and  what  is  lost  in  length  is  gained  in  thickness.  The 
leaves  are  small  and  short,  and  only  proceed  from  the  cen- 
tre of  the  crown.  The  Siam  has  a root  of  a yellowish  col- 
our, not  very  large,  but  tender,  and  more  rich  in  taste  than 
the  other  varieties.’’ 

Soil. — The  soil  should  be  light,  deep,  and  free  from 
stones.  It  should  be  dug  or  trenched  before  sowing,  one 
good  spade  deep,  at  least,  (some  writers  say  two  spades 
deep,)  being  careful  to  pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly,  that 
the  roots  may  have  no  obstruction  to  prevent  their  run- 
ning down  long  and  straight.  If  the  soil  be  proper  for 
them,  it  is  said  they  will  not  require  much  manure;  and 
what  is  used  should  be  perfectly  decomposed,  or,  if  recent, 
be  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  trench.  They  do  not 
impoverish  the  soil,  but,  like  onions,  may  be  raised  many 
years  in  the  same  spot. 

Seed  estimatCy  and  sowing. — Sow  as  early  as  the  ground  is 
thawed,  if  not  too  wet.  Deane  observed,  that  “ some 
sow  them  in  the  fall ; but  that  is  not  a good  practice,  be- 
cause the  ground  will  grow  too  close  and  stiff  for  want  of 
stirring  in  the  spring ; which  cannot  well  be  performed  in 
gardens,  without  danger  of  injuring  the  roots.  And  weeds 
will  be  more  apt  to  abound  among  them  if  they  be  sown 
in  autumn.”  Loudon  says,  For  abed  five  feet  by  twenty, 
the  plants  to  remain  thinned  to  eight  inches’  distance,  half  an 
ounce  of  seed  is  the  usual  proportion.”  Deane  recommends 
sdwing  them  in  tows  arross  beds,  fifteen  inches  apart, 


PARSNEP. 


225 


and  to  allow  six  inches  from  plant  to  plant  at  the  last  thin- 
ning, which  may  be  early,  as  they  are  not  often  hurt  by 
insects. 

Culture, — When  the  plants  are  about  one,  two  or  three 
inches  high,  in  May  or  June,  let  them  be  thinned  and 
cleared  from  weeds  either  by  hand  or  small  hoeing.  Keep 
them  afterwards  clear  from  weeds,  till  the  leaves  cover  the 
ground,  after  which  no  further  culture  will  be  required. 
Parsneps  will  continue  growing  till  the  frosts  are  very 
severe,  and  are  not  good  for  use  till  they  have  become  ripe, 
late  in  autumn.  Any  thing  which  is  to  be  used  early  in 
the  season  may  be  sown  with  parsneps,  such  as  carrots  to 
draw  young,  radishes,  lettuces,  &c. 

Preserving  during  winter, — The  parsnep  is  not  so  liable 
as  the  carrot  to  be  hurt  by  frost  if  left  in  the  ground,  and 
some  let  them  remain  where  they  grew  through  winter. 
But  the  best  way  is  to  dig  them  some  time  in  November. 
They  should  not  be  wounded  nor  bruised  in  digging ; nei- 
ther should  the  tops  be  cut  off  very  close  to  the  roots,  nor 
any  of  the  lateral  roots  cut  off.  In  either  case  the  roots  will 
rot  or  become  bitter.  ‘‘Many  lose  their  parsneps,  or 
make  them  sprout,  by  putting  them  in  a warm  cellar.  It  is 
better  to  keep  them  in  some  out-house,  or  in  a cellar  that 
freezes  ; for  no  degree  of  frost  ever  hurts  them.  But  to 
prevent  their  drying  too  much,  it  is  best  to  cover  them  with 
ciry  sods,  or  else  bury  them  in  sand  that  has  no  moisture 
in  it.  Beach  sand  is  improper,  because  the  salt  in  it  will 
make  them  vegetate.” — Deane, 

Field  culture  of  parsneps, — In  giving  an  account  of  the 
agriculture  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  an  English  writer  says, 
“ Parsneps  are  grown  by  every  farmer,  and  either  by  the 
spade  culture  alone,  by  the  plough  and  spade,  or  by  the 
small  and  great  plough : any  soil  in  good  heart  and  tilth 
suits  them,  but  peculiarly  a deep  loam ; and  in  the  same 
spot,  generally,  are  raised  beans,  peas,  cabbage,  and,  occa- 
sionally, potatoes. 

“ When  the  ploughing  or  digging  is  completed,  the  field 
is  once  harrowed ; straight  lines  are  then  drawn  across,  by 
means  of  a gardener’s  rake,  usually  from  north  to  south ; 
women  then  proceed  with  dibbles,  and  set  the  beans  in 
rows,  at  a distance  of  four  inches,  or  five  inches,  from  bean 
to  bean,  in  four,  three,  and  sometimes  two  ranks  of  beans, 
leaving  intervals  of  between  five  and  six  feet  between  each 
of  the  sown  rows.  In  the  use  of  the  dibble,  and  in  drop- 
ping the  beans,  the  w^omen  have  acquired  considerable 


226 


PEA. 


dexterity.  In  many  instances  they  are  followed  by  chil- 
dren, who  drop  into  each  hole  made  by  the  dibble,  after 
the  bean,  three  or  four  peas ; the  parsnep  seed  is  then  sown 
at  the  rate  of  one  third  to  one  half  of  a bushel  to  the  acre.” 
— Quayle^s  General  View  of  the  Norman  Islands, 

Use, — The  writer  above  quoted  asserts,  that,  in  the  island 
of  Jersey,  parsnep  “ is  eaten  with  meat,  with  milk,  and 
with  butter ; but  not,  as  is  the  common  mode  of  using  it  as 
human  food  in  England,  with  salt  fish,  or,  as  in  Ireland,  to- 
gether with  potatoes. 

‘‘  The  next  most  valuable  application  of  this  root  is  hog- 
feeding. At  first  it  is  given  to  the  animal  in  a ravr  state, 
afterwards  boiled  or  steamed,  and  finally,  for  a week  or 
fortnight,  with  bean  and  oat-meal.  A hog  treated  in  this 
way  is  sufficiently  fatted  for  killing  in  about  six  weeks. 
Its  flesh  is  held  superior  to  that  arising  from  any  other  food, 
and  does  not  waste  in  boiling. 

‘‘  Bullocks  are  also  fatted  with  parsneps  in  about  three 
months;  their  f sh  is  here  considered  of  superior  flavour 
to  any  other  beeL  and  commands,  on  that  account,  an  ad- 
ditional half-peiuiy  in  the  pound  on  the  price.  To  milch 
cows  they  are  also  usually  given  ; on  this  diet,  the  cream 
assumes  a yellow  colour.  By  the  accounts  here  given,  it 
appears,  in  proportion  to  the  milk,  to  be  more  abundant, 
than  when  the  animal  is  kept  on  any  other  food  whatever. 
When  the  cow  receives  at  the  rate  of  thirty-five  pounds 
per  day,  with  hay,  seven  quarts,  ale  measure,  of  the  milk 

f produce  seventeen  ounces  of  butter.  It  is  generally  al- 
owed  that  the  flavour  of  the  butter  is  superior  to  any  other 
produced  in  winter. 

“ Geese  are  sometimes  shut  up  with  the  hogs  to  fatten 
on  parsneps,  which  they  will  eat  raw.  The  root  is  also 
given  boiled ; and  for  a week  before  killing  they  are  fed 
with  oats  or  barley  only.  Horses  eat  this  root  greedily ; 
but  in  this  island  it  is  never  given  them,  as  it  is  alleged 
that,  fed  on  this  food,  their  eyes  are  injured.  About  Mor- 
lais,  horses  are  not  only  ordinarily  fed  on  parsneps,  but  they 
are  considered  as  the  best  of  all  food,  superior  even  to 
oats.” 

To  save  seed, — Transplant  some  of  the  best  roots  as 
early  as  the  frost  will  permit  in  the  spring,  two  feet  asun- 
der, inserted  over  the  crown.  They  will  produce  seed 
plentifully  in  autumn. 

PEA. — Pisum  sativum, — The  pea  is  a hardy  annual,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  cultivated  in  Great  Britain 


PEA. 


227 


from  time  immemorial,  and  in  this  country  from  its  first 
settlement. 

Varieties. — These  are  numerous  : those  mentioned  in  Mr. 


Russell’s  Catalogue  are, 

Early  Washington,  or  true  May 
Pea,  {extra  early  and  Jim — 
grows  to  the  height  of  two  and  a 
half  feet ;) 

Early  double-blossomed,  fi-ame, 
{early  and  fim — three  feet;) 

Early  frame,  {pwo  and  a half 
feet  ;) 

Early  golden  Hotspur,  {three  feet,) 

Early  Charlton,  {three  feet ;) 

Dwarf  blue  imperial,  {two  feet,  a 
superior  variety  ;) 

Dwarf  blue  Prussian,  {two  and  a 
half  feet;) 


Dwarf  Spanish,  or  fan,  {om  foot ;) 

Dwarf  marrowfat,  {three  and  a half 
feet;) 

{pods  eaten — three  feet 

Matchless,  or  true  tall  marrowfat, 
{six.  feet  ;\ 

Knight’s  tall  marrows ; 

Tall,  crooked  podded  sugar,  {pods 
eaten — six  feet  ;) 

Ladies’  finger  marrows,  {a  prodigi- 
ous bearer,  and  delicate  eating  pea ;) 

New  nonpareil  pea,  (ct  new  ana  pro- 
ductive sort  from  Scotland ;) 

Knight’s  dwarf  marrows. 


The  Charltons  are  not  only  very  early,  but  great  bear- 
ers, and  excellent  peas  for  the  table ; and  are  therefore 
equally  well  fitted  for  the  early  and  forward  succession 
crops,  and  inferior  to  few  even  for  the  main  summer  crops. 
The  frame  pea  may  indeed  be  raised  without  the  assistance 
of  heat  for  a forward  crop,  and,  if  a genuine  sort,  will  fruit 
a few  days  sooner  than  the  Charlton;  but  it  grows  low, 
and  bears  scantily.  The  Hotspur  is  hardy  and  prolific, 
and  makes  returns  nearly  as  quick  as  the  Charlton,  and  about 
a fortnight  before  the  marrowfat.  The  sorts  already  spe- 
cified,therefore, embrace  the  best  for  so  wings  made  from  the 
end  of  October  till  the  middle  of  January,  and  for  late  crops, 
raised  between  the  middle  of  June  and  the  beginning  of 
August.  The  Charltons  and  Hotspur  may  be  sown  in 
May  for  late  fall  crops  ; in  June  for  a smaller  supply ; and  in 
July  along  with  the  frames  for  the  last  returns.” — Loudon. 

Times  of  sowing. — “ The  dwarfs  are  generally  employed 
in  hot-bed  culture,  which,  however,  succeeds  badly,  and 
is  neither  worth  preserving  nor  describing,  and  the  less  so, 
as  early  crops  may  be  more  certainly  had  by  sowing  in  the 
fall,  in  sheltered  situations,  and  covering  during  the  winter 
with  a layer  of  leaves,  and  another  of  long  stable-litter 
loosely  applied  to  keep  the  leaves  in  their  places.  After 
the  earth  takes  a temperature  favourable  to  vegetation, 
your  pea  sowings  should  be  made  once  a fortnight,  to  keep 
up  a regular  and  successive  supply.” — Armstrong. 

Quantity  of  seed. — Of  the  small,  early  kinds,  one  pint 
will  sow  a row  of  twenty  yards ; for  the  larger  sorts,  for 
main  crops,  the  same  measure  will  sow  a row  of  thirty- 
three  yards.” 


Process  in  sowing. — For  early  sorts,  make  the  drills 


228 


Pt2A. 


one  inch  and  a half  deep ; ai|d  let  parallel  drills  be  two 
feet  and  a half,  three  or  four  feet  asunder.  Peas  that  are 
to  grow  without  sticks  require  the  least  room.  For  sum- 
mer crops  and  large  sorts,  make  the  drills  two  inches 
deep,  and  four,  five  or  six  feet  asunder.  As  to  the  dis- 
tances along  the  drill,  distribute  the  peas  according  to 
their  size,  and  the  season  : the  frame,  three  in  the  space  of 
an  inch ; the  Charltons,  Hotspur,  and  dwarf  marrowfat, 
two  in  an  inch ; the  Prussian  blue,  and  middle-sized  sorts, 
three  in  two  inches  ; the  large  marrowfat  and  Knight’s  a 
full  inch  apart  ; the  moratto,  rouncivals,  and  most  larger 
sorts,  an  inch  and  a half  apart,  and  the  Patagonian,  two 
inches.” 

Soil  and  situation, — The  soil  should  be  moderately 
rich,  and  the  deeper  and  stronger  for  the  lofty  growers. 
Peas  are  not  assisted,  but  hurt,  by  unreduced  dung  recently 
turned  in.  A fresh,  sandy  loam,  or  road-stuff,  and  a little 
decomposed  vegetable  matter,  is  the  best  manure.  The 
soil  for  the  early  crops  should  be  very  dry,  and  rendered  so, 
where  the  ground  is  moist,  by  mixing  sand  with  the  earth 
of  the  drills.” — Loudon, 

Armstrong  says,  “ A loose  and  warm  soil  is  most  fa- 
vourable to  this  vegetable,  which,  by  the  way,  is  neither 
improved  dn  quality  nor  quantity  by  stable  manure.  The 
soil  of  Clichy,  and  of  Point  de  Jour  des  Colombo,  &c.  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  is  a pure  sand,  principally  de- 
voted to  pea  crops,  and  yielding  these  most  abundantly 
without  the  application  of  dung  new  or  old.” 

Subsequent  culture,^^^  As  the  plants  rise  from  half  an 
inch  high  to  two  or  three  inches,  begin  to  draw  earth  to 
the  stems,  doing  this  when  the  ground  is  in  a dry  state, 
and  earthing  gradually  higher  as  the  stems  ascend.  At  the 
s'^me  time,  with  the  hoe,  loosen  the  ground  between  the 
young  plants,  and  cut  dov/n  rising  weeds.  Early  crops 
should  be  protected  during  hard  frosts  by  dry  straw,  or 
other  light  litter,  laid  upon  sticks  or  brush  wood  ; but  re- 
move the  covering  as  soon  as  the  weather  turns  mild.  If, 
in  April,  May,  and  the  course  of  the  summer,  dry  weather 
occurs,  vratering  will  be  necessary,  especially  to  plants  in 
blossom  and  .swelling  the  fruit ; and  this  trouble  will  be 
repaid  in  the  produce.  Row^s  partly  cut  off  may  be  made 
up  by  transplanting.  In  dry  weather,  w^ater,  and  in  hot 
weather,  shade,  until  the  plants  strike.  All  peas  fruit  bet-^ 
ter  for  sticking,  and  continue  longer  productive,  especially 
the  larger  sorts.  Stick  the  plants,  when  from  six  to  twelve 


PEA. 


229 


inches  liigh,  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  vine.  Provide 
branchy  sticks  of  such  a height  as  the  sort  will  require ; 
for  tlie  frame  and  Leadman’s  dwarf,  three  feet  high ; for 
the  Charlton  and  middle-sized,  four  or  five  feet;  for  the 
marrowfat  and  larger  kinds,  six  or  eight  feet ; for  the  roun- 
cival,  and  for  Knight’s  marrow-pea,  nine  or  ten  feet.  Place 
a row  of  sticks  to  ‘^ach  line  of  peas,  on  the  most  sunny  side^ 
east  or  south,  that  the  attraction  of  the  sun  may  incline  the 
plants  towards  the  sticks.  Place  about  half  the  number  on 
the  opposite  side,  and  let  both  rows  stand  rather  wider  at 
top  than  at  the  ground.  Some  gardeners  stop  the  leading 
shoot  of  the  most  early  crop,  when  in  blossom ; a device 
which  accelerates  the  setting  and  maturity  of  the  fruit. 

To  forward  an  early  crop. — “ Sow  or  plant  in  lines  from 
east  to  w^est,  and  stick  a row  of  spruce-fir  [or  other  ever- 
green] branches  along  the  north  side  of  every  row,  and 
sloping  so  as  to  bend  over  the  plants,  at  one  foot  or  eigh- 
teen inches  from  the  ground.  As  the  plants  advance  in 
height,  vary  the  position  of  the  branches,  so  as  they  may 
always  protect  them  from  perpendicular  cold  or  rain,  and  yet 
leave  them  open  to  the  full  influence  of  the  spring  sun.  Some 
cover  during  nights,  and  in  severe  weather  with  two  hoards, 
nailed  together  lengthwise,  at  right  angles,  which  forms  a 
very  secure  and  easily-managed  covering,  but  excludes  light. 
A better  plan  would  be  to  glaze  one  of  the  sides,  to  be 
kept  to  the  south,  and  to  manage  such  row-glasses,  as  they 
might  be  called,  when  over  peas,  beans,  spinage,  &c.,  as 
hand-glasses  are  managed,  when  over  cauliflower ; that  is, 
to  take  them  off  in  fine  weather,  or  raise  them  constantly 
or  occasionally  by  brick-bats,  or  other  props,  as  the  weather 
and  the  state  of  the  crop  might  require.” — Loudon. 

Management  of  a late  crop. — The  best  variety  for  this 
purpose  is  Knight’s  marrow-pea,  which  may  be  sown  at 
intervals  of  ten  days,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  June. 
‘‘  The  ground  is  dug  over  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  spaces 
to  be  occupied  by  the  future  rows  of  peas  are  well  soaked 
with  water.  The  mould  upon  each  side  is  then  collected 
so  as  to  form  ridges  seven  or  eight  inches  above  the  pre- 
vious level  of  the  ground,  and  these  ridges  are  well  watered. 
The  seeds  are  now  sown  in  single  rows,  along  the  tops  of 
the  ridges.  The  plants  grow  vigorously,  owing  to  the 
depth  of  soil  and  abundant  moisture.  If  dry  weather  at 
any  time  set  in,  water  is  applied  profusely  once  a week. 
In  this  way,  the  plants  continue  green  and  vigorous,  resist- 
20 


230 


PEA. 


ing  mildew,  and  yielding  fruit  till  subdued  by  frost.” — Horl 
Trans,  vol.  ii. 

To  save  seed. — Like  other  vegetables,  the  pea  is  sus- 
ceptible of  considerable  improvement,  and  by  the  simple 
means  of  marking  the  finest  plants  of  each  variety,  and 
keeping  them  for  seed.  Wilson’s  frame,  and  the  Knight 
pea,  have  been  formed  in  this  way,  a».J  afibrd  sufiicient 
proof  of  the  wonders  produced  by  a very  small  degree  of 
observation  and  care.” — Annstrong. 

Field-culture  of  the  pea. — The  most  common  mode  of 
sowing  peas  is  broad-cast ; but  the  advantages  of  the  row- 
culture,  in  a crop  so  early  committed  to  the  ground,  must 
be  obvious.  Loudon  says,  In  Kent,  where  immense 
quantities  of  peas  are  raised,  both  for  gathering  green,  and 
for  selling  ripe  to  the  seedsmen,  they  are  generally  sown  in 
rows  from  eighteen  inches  to  three  feet  asunder,  according 
to  the  kind,  and  w^ell  cultivated  between.  Peas,  laid  a foot 
below  the  surface,  will  vegetate  ; but  the  most  approved 
depth  is  six  inches  in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay 
soil,  for  which  reason  they  ought  to  be  sown  under  furrow, 
when  the  ploughing  is  delayed  till  spring.  Of  all  grain, 
beans  excepted,  they  are  in  the  least  danger  of  being  buried 
too  deep.” — Loudon. 

Deane  observed,  that  ^‘For  field-peas,  land  that  is  newly 
ploughed  out  of  sward  is  generally  accounted  best  ; and 
land  which  is  high  and  dry,  and  has  not  been  much  dunged. 
A light,  loamy  soil  is  most  suitable  for  them ; and  if  it 
abound  with  slaty  stones,  it  is  the  better.  But  they  will 
do  in  any  dry  soil.  The  manures  that  suit  peas  best,  are 
marl  and  lime.  Our  farmers  do  not  commonly  allow  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  seed  for  peas,  in  broad-cast  sowing. 
When  peas  are  sowed  thin,  the  plants  will  lie  on  the 
ground,  and  perhaps  rot : when  they  are  thick,  the  plants 
will  hold  each  other  up  with  their  tendrils,  forming  a con- 
tinued w’^eb,  and  will  have  more  benefit  of  the  air. 

Insects  and  diseases. — The  Mass.  Agriculturcil  Repository^ 
for  June,  1822,  contains  some  remarks  of  the  Hon.  T.  Pick- 
ering, relative  to  a bug  or  fly,  (bruchus  pisi^)  which  preys 
on  the  pea,  in  which  he  observes,  that  an  effectual  remedy 
for  this  evil  is  late  sowing  ; but  the  hot  sun  of  June  wull  so 
pinch  the  vines  of  the  late  sowm  peas,  that  the  crop  will  be 
small,  unless  the  land  be  moist  as  well  as  rich.  He  then 
details  some  experiments,  by  -which  he  concludes  that  this 
insect  is  limited  to  a certain  period  for  depositing  its  eggs ; 


PEA. 


231 


and  if  the  tender  pods  are  not  found  till  that  period  has 
passed,  the  peas  will  be  free  from  bugs.  Col.  Worthing- 
ton, of  Rcnsellaer  county,  N.  Y.,  sowed  his  peas  on  the 
10th  of  June,  six  years  in  succession,  and  a bug  has  never 
been  seen  in  his  peas.  Whereas  his  neighbours,  who  have 
not  adopted  this  practice,  have  scarcely  a pea  without  a 
bug  in  it.  He  supposes  the  season  for  depositing  the  egg 
of  the  pea-bug  is  passed  before  the  peas  are  in  flower.” — 
Mem*  of  N.  V*  Board  of  Agriculture^  vol.  ii.  p.  23.  “ The 

only  insect  that  commonly  injures  our  peas  is  a small  brown 
bug  or  fly,  the  egg  [or  larva]  of  which  is  deposited  in  them 
when  they  are  young,  and  the  pods  easily  perforated.  The 
insect  does  not  come  out  of  its  nest  till  he  is  furnished  with 
short  wings.  They  diminish  the  peas  in  which  they  lodge 
nearly  one  half,  and  their  leavings  are  fit  only  for  the  food 
of  swine.  The  bugs,  however,  will  be  all  gone  out  if  you 
keep  them  to  the  following  autumn.  But  they  who  eat 
buggy  peas  the  winter  after  they  are  raised,  must  run  the 
venture  of  eating  the  insects.” — Deane’^s  N.  E,  Farmer* 
The  same  writer  recommends,  when  seed-peas  are  known 
or  suspected  to  contain  insects,  to  scald  them  a quarter  of  a 
minute  in  boiling  water,  spread  them  about,  and  sow  them 
without  delay.  If  any  of  the  bugs  should  be  in  the  peas, 
this  scalding  will  destroy  them ; and  the  peas,  instead  of 
being  hurt,  will  come  up  the  sooner,  and  grow  the  faster. 

Mildew  is  another  evil  attending  peas,  especially  such  as 
are  sown  late  in  the  season.  This  disorder  is  supposed  by 
Knight  to  be  caused  by  a want  of  a sufficient  supply  of 
moisture  from  the  soil,  with  excess  of  humidity  in  the  air, 
particularly  if  the  plants  be  exposed  to  a temperature  below 
that  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed.”  The  remedy 
which  he  recommends  is,  to  give  water  rather  profusely 
once  a week,  or  nine  days,  even  if  the  weather  proves 
showery.” — See  N,  E,  Farmer^  vol.  i.  p.  414. 

Use* — The  use  of  peas  for  soups,  and  other  culinary  pur 
poses,  is  well  knowm.  They  are  likewise  very  serviceable 
in  fattening  hogs,  for  which  purpose  they  should  be  har- 
vested dry,  and  gTound  into  meal.  If  the  straw  be  forward 
in  autumn,  and  has  been  harvested  without  injury,  it  will 
be  little  inferior  to  ordinary  hay  for  feeding  cattle. 

In  boiling  split  peas,  some  samples,  without  reference 
to  variety,  fall  or  moulder  down  freely  into  pulp,  while 
others  continue  to  maintain  their  form.  The  former  are 
called  hollers*  This  property  of  boiling  depends  on  the 
soil : stiff  land,  or  sandy  land  that  has  been  limed  or  marled. 


232 


PEACH-TREE* 


uniformly  produces  peas  that  will  not  melt  in  boiling,  no 
matter  what  the  variety  may  be.” — Loudon, 

‘‘  When  peas  are  sown  before  winter,  or  early  in  spring, 
they  are  very  apt  to  be  eaten  by  mice.  To  prevent  this, 
soak  the  peas,  for  a day  or  two,  in  train  oil,  before  you  sow 
them,  which  will  encourage  their  vegetation,  and  render 
them  so  obnoxious  to  the  mice  that  they  will  not  eat 
them.” — Domestic  Encyclopedia, 

PEACH-TREE. — Amygdalus  Persica, — The  peach-tree 
is  a native  of  Asia,  and  was  first  brought  to  Rome  during 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius. 

Varieties, — Linnseus  divides  the  A,  Persica  into  two 
varieties;  that  with  downy  fruit,  or  the  peach,  and  that 
with  smooth  fruit,  or  the  nectarine.  There  are  various  in- 
stances on  record,  {Hort,  Trans,  vol.  i.  p.  103,)  of  both 
fruits  growing  on  the  same  tree,  even  on  the  same  branch ; 
and  one  case  has  occurred  of  a single  fruit  partaking  of  the 
nature  of  both.  See  further^  Fruit. 

All  the  varieties  are  continued  by  budding,  and,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  new  ones  are  obtained  by  sowing  the  stones ; 
in  doing  which,  we  ought  not  to  forget,  that,  like  oil-giving 
seeds  in  general,  those  of  the  peach  require  to  be  earthed 
as  soon  as  they  are  separated  from  the  pulp.  In  their  sec- 
ond year,  (if  wall-trees  are  required,)  such  of  them  as  are 
destined  for  stems  are  budded  close  to  the  earth ; and  if 
riders  or  standards  are  wanted,  three,  four,  or  six  feet 
higher.  In  the  spring  following,  the  first  shoots  from 
these  buds  should  be  headed  down  to  four,  five,  or  six 
eyes,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  two  upright  and  leading 
branches,  and  as  many  laterals,  with  which  you  begin  to 
give  to  the  head  the  form  you  intend  it  shall  ultimately 
take. 

‘‘  The  standard  is  nearly  the  natural  form  of  the  tree ; 
requiring  no  interposition  of  art,  if  we  except  the  removal 
of  dead,  or  dying,  or  superfluous  limbs,  and  an  occasional 
supply  of  wood,  (if  this  be  wanted,)  to  keep  up  a well-bal- 
anced head.  It  is  also  that  form  in  which  the  tree  suc- 
ceeds best  in  hot  climates ; and  in  such  it  ought  always  to 
be  employed.  But,  in  northern  latitudes,  (where  the  heat 
is  neither  long  continued  nor  great,)  the  fruit  of  the  stand- 
ard peach-tree  is  rarely  seen  in  perfection  ; it  may  be  large, 
and  juicy,  and  well  coloured,  but  it  will  always  be  deficient 
in  that  peculiar  flavour,  that  aroma,  which  is  its  true  char- 
acteristic, and  without  which  it  is  but  ordinary  fruit.  To 
supply,  therefore,  as  far  as  may  be  possible,  without  the  aid 


P EACH-TREE. 


233 


of  iire  or  glass,  that  high  temperature  in  which  the  peach 
delights,  we  must  recur,  first,  to  the  use  of  walls,  whioh, 
besides  protecting  the  tree  from  high  and  cold  winds,  con- 
centrate the  rays  of  the  sun  on  its  stem  and  branches,  and 
on  the  earth  which  surrounds  and  nourishes  its  roots ; sec- 
ond, to  the  amelioration  of  the  soil,  by  giving  to  it  both 
warmth  and  dryness,  should  it  be  deficient  in  these  quali- 
ties ; and,  third,  to  the  mode  of  training,  which  exposes  to 
the  light  the  greatest  surface  of  leaf  in  the  shortest  space 
of  time,  and,  consequently,  best  promotes  an  equal  distribu- 
tion of  the  sap.  For  accomplishing  these  three  objects, 
the  rules  are,  to  construct  your  walls  of  stone,  or  brick,  or 
wood,  and  of  a height  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet ; to  lay 
out  on  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  a border  ten  feet 
wide,  worked  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  and  manured  with  a 
mixture  of  ashes  and  peat,  or  bog  earth ; to  plant  in  this  (two 
and  a half  feet  distant  from  the  wall)  your  young  trees, 
furnished  with  two  leading  branches,  and  presenting  a figure 
not  unlike  the  letter  Y ; to  bring  down  those  branches  to  a 
position  nearly  horizontal,  and  subsequently  to  train  them 
upwards,  parallel  to  each  other,  as  high  as  the  top  of  the 
wall,  and  directly  against  its  side,  to  which,  throughout 
their  whole  length,  they  are  to  be  fastened  by  woollen 
straps ; and,  lastly,  to  encourage  side  shoots  from  these 
leaders,  so  as  to  fill  up  with  bearing  wood  the  intermediate 
space  between  them,  and  such  exterior  space  on  the  wall 
as  may  be  thought  proper  and  practicable.  To  this  form 
is  given  the  technical  name  of  the  wavy  or  curvilineal  fan; 
^.nd  it  is  obvious,  that,  in  preserving,  as  well  as  producing 
it,  the  use  of  the  knife  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  Be  care- 
ful, therefore,  in  May  and  June,  and,  occasionally,  in  the 
succeeding  months,  to  remove  water-shoots,  and  all  ill- 
placed,  redundant  and  diseased  buds ; and,  again,  at  the 
fall  of  the  leaf,  to  cut  away,  with  a sharp  knife,  and  close 
to  the  branches  on  which  they  grow,  such  new  shoots  as 
will  not  readily  accommodate  themselves  to  your  design,  or 
as  may  be  unnecessary  to  it,  and  also  all  such  old  wood  as 
may  be  useless  or  troublesome. 

“ The  general  rules  for  thinning  leaves  and  fruit  must  be 
carefully  observed  in  the  treatment  of  peach-trees  and  nec- 
tarines, as  they  are  known  to  have  an  uncommon  degree  of 
proneness  to  overbearing,  and  as  the  discipline  we  recom- 
mend will,  besides  giving  an  improved  fruit,  tend  directly 
and  greatly  to  fortify  the  trees  against  the  attacks  of  their 
20'' 


234 


PEACH-TREE. 


numerous  enemies.  Of  these,  the  acarus,  chermes^  aphis 
and  thripsy  (an  insect  hardly  perceptible  to  the  naked  eye,) 
are  the  most  common,  and  are  best  expelled  by  water  and 
tobacco  smoke.  It  is,  however,  the  curculio,  or  grub,  (as 
we  call  it,)  that  may,  from  its  pre-eminence  in  mischief,  be 
regarded  as  the  destroyer  of  the  peach.  Its  attacks,  ordi- 
narily, begin  in  the  stem,  near  the  surface  of  the  earth ; 
and,  if  not  arrested,  will  soon  terminate  in  the  roots,  where 
it  riots  on  the  gum  exuding  from  the  wounds  it  inflicts. 
The  remedies  resorted  to  in  this  case  are,  first,  the  appli- 
cation of  boiling  water  to  the  roots  ; second,  a similar  ap- 
plication of  unslaked  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  one  quart 
to  a tree  ; third,  removing  the  surface  earth,  and  substitut- 
ing for  it  tanners’ bark ; fourth,  removing  the  earth,  as  in 
the  preceding  case,  in  the  month  of  November,  and  expos- 
ing the  roots  to  the  action  of  frost  during  the  winter ; and, 
fifth,  encircling  the  lower  part  of  the  stem  with  straw,  and 
thus  compelling  the  insect  to  begin  his  attack  so  far  from 
the  ground,  that  he  will  be  unable  to  avail  himself  of  its 
shelter  before  the  coming  on  of  winter. 

“ The  diseases  of  the  peach-tree  are  as  numerous,  and 
often  as  fatal,  as  the  depredators  just  mentioned ; and  are 
known  to  horticulturists  under  the  names  of  the  honey-dew, 
mildew,  canker,  spots,  &c.  The  first  of  these  yields  to  the 
flour  of  sulphur,  sprinkled  over  the  tree  ; but  the  most  ef- 
ficient cure  for  all  of  them  is  the  removal  of  the  soil  about 
their  roots.” — Armstrong's  Treatise  on  Gardening, 

The  following  is  from  the  Domestic  Encydopedia^  last 
Philadelphia  edition  : — 

Peach-trees  are  liable  to  three  casualties  : 

1.  The  fly  that  deposits  eggs  near  the  root,  and  there 
forms  a worm. 

2.  The  bursting  of  the  bark  by  severe  frosts  in  wet 
winters. 

3.  The  splitting  of  Uie  limbs  at  the  fork  of  the  tree. 

‘‘  The  fly,  which  is  blue,  (but  not  a wasp,)  begins  its  at- 
tacks about  the  middle  of  July,  and  continues  its  depreda- 
tions until  the  middle  of  September.  It  wounds  the  tender 
part  of  the  bark,  and  generally  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
there  depositing  its  eggs,  which  hatch  into  worms,  that 
prey  upon  the  mucilage  and  tender  part  of  the  bark,  until 
the  communication  between  the  root  and  the  branches  is 
cut  off,  causing  the  death  of  the  tree.  To  guard  against 
this,  raise  a little  hillock  in  the  month  of  June,  round  the 


PEACll-TilEE. 


235 


tree,  about  a foot  high,  so  as  completely  to  cover  that  part 
of  the  bark  kept  moist  and  tender  at  the  surface  of  the 
gr  )und.  This  hillock  will  not  stand  so  long  at  one  height, 
as  to  tender  the  bark  above,  as  the  rain  will  gradually  wash 
i!^  down  level  with  the  surface;  and  it  must  be  raised  again 
every  summer. 

To  take  out  the  worm,  the  roots  must  be  uncovered, 
and  the  spot  looked  for  where  the  gum  oozes  out,  following 
the  cavity  round  with  the  point  of  a knife,  till  you  come  to 
the  solid  wood,  and  lay  the  whole  open  : the  worm  will  be 
found  with  a white  body  and  black  head ; which  must  be 
destroyed,  and  the  holes  carefully  filled  up  with  cow  ma- 
nure, rendered  adhesive  by  sand,  or  lime  and  ashes,  as  di- 
rected by  Forsyth. 

“ Soap-suds,  heated  after  a family  wash,  and  poured  on 
the  roots  of  trees  about  the  middle  of  August,  have  been 
used  with  success  in  destroying  the  eggs  or  the  young 
worm. 

‘‘  ‘ According  to  Mr.  John  Ellis,  of  New  Jersey,  the  in- 
jury arising  from  the  worm  may  be  prevented  in  the  follow- 
ing way : 

In  the  spring,  when  the  blossoms  are  out,  clear  away 
the  dirt,  so  as  to  expose  the  root  of  the  tree,  to  the  depth  of 
three  inches ; surround  the  tree  with  straw  about  three  feet 
long,  applied  lengthwise,  so  that  it  may  have  a covering 
one  inch  thick,  which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole, 
the  but-ends  of  the  straw  resting  on  the  ground  at  the 
bottom ; bind  this  straw  round  the  tree  with  three  bands, 
one  near  the  top,  one  at  the  middle,  and  the  third  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  ; then  fill  up  the  hole  at  the  root  with 
earth,  and  press  it  closely  round  the  straw.  When  the 
white  frosts  appear,  the  straw  should  be  removed,  and  the 
tree  remain  uncovered,  until  the  blossoms  put  out  in  the 
spring. 

“ ‘ By  this  process,  the  ily  is  prevented  from  depositing  its 
egg  within  three  feet  of  the  root ; and,  although  it  may  place 
the  egg  above  that  distance,  the  worm  travels  so  slow  that 
it  cannot  reach  the  ground  before  frost,  and  therefore  is  kill- 
ed before  it  is  able  to  injure  the  tree. 

‘ The  truth  of  the  principle  is  proved  by  the  follow- 
ing fact.  I practised  this  method  with  a large  number  of 
peach-trees,  and  thev  flourished  remarkably  without  any 
appearance  of  the  worm  for  several  years,  when  I was  in- 
duced to  discontinue  the  straw  with  about  twenty  of  them. 
All  those  which  were  without  the  straw  have  declined^  while 


236 


PEACH-TREE* 


the  others^  which  have  had  the  straw,  continue  as  vigorous  as 
erer.’* 

“ To  guard  against  frost,  plant  the  trees  where  the  water 
will  run  off,  and  procure  the  sweetest  and  richest  fruit,  as 
the  inferior  qualities  are  more  injured  hy  the  cold. 

‘‘  The  splitting  of  the  tree  at  the  forks  is  guarded  against 
by  preserving  as  many  upright  branches  as  can  be  spared, 
by  breaking  off,  in  bearing  years,  more  than  half  the  quan- 
tity of  fruit  while  small,  and  by  pruning  almost  the  whole 
of  every  branch  beyond  where  the  fruit  is  set,  leaving  only 
a few  buds  on  each  of  the  succeeding  year’s  fruit.  The 
size  of  the  fruit  is  by  these  means  rendered  larger,  more 
beautiful,  and  of  a higher  flavour,  and  the  growth  of  the 
tree  is  rendered  more  vigorous. 

“ Mr.  Thomas  Coulter,  of  Bedford  county,  Penn.,  asserts 
that  ‘ The  principal  causes  of  peach-trees  dying  while 
young  are  the  planting,  transplanting  and  pruning  the  same 
stock ; which  causes  the  stock  to  be  open  and  tender,  and 
the  bark  of  the  tree  very  rough : this  roughness  of  the  bark 
gives  opportunities  to  insects  to  lodge  and  breed  in  it ; and 
birds  search  after  these  insects  for  their  support,  and  with 
their  sharp  bills  wound  the  stock  in  many  places ; from 
which  wound  the  sap  of  the  tree  is  drawn  out,  which  con- 
geals, and  never  fails  to  kill,  or  to  render  the  tree  useless  in 
a few  years.  To  prevent  which,  transplant  your  peach- 
trees,  as  young  as  possible,  where  you  mean  them  to  stand ; 
if  in  the  kernel,  so  much  the  better ; because,  in  that  case, 
there  will  be  no  check  of  growth,  which  always  injures 
peach-trees.  Plant  peach-trees  sixteen  feet  apart,  both 
ways,  except  you  would  wish  to  take  your  wagon  through 
the  orchard  to  carry  the  peaches  away ; in  that  case  give 
twenty-four  feet  distance  to  every  fifth  row,  one  way,  after 
transplanting.  You  may  plough  and  harrow  amongst  your 
peaches  for  two  years,  paying  no  regard  to  wounding  or 
tearing  them,  so  that  you  do  not  take  them  up  by  the  roots. 
In  the  month  of  March  or  April,  in  the  third  year  after 
transplanting,  cut  them  all  off  by  the  ground  ; plough  and 
harrow  amongst  them  as  before,  taking  special  care  not  to 
wound  or  tear  them  in  the  smallest  degree,  letting  all  the 
sprouts  grow,  that  wull  grow  ; cut  none  away,  supposing  six 
or  more  should  come  up  from  the  old  stump ; the  young 
scions  will  grow  up  to  bearing  trees  on  account  of  the 


* Dr.  Thacher  observes,  that  A band  of  matting’,  extending'  about  six  inch- 
es above,  and  the  • ame  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  may  be  found  prolora- 
bte  to  straw,  as  it  is  easier  applied.'^ 


i>EACH-TREK. 


237 


roots  being  strong.  Let  no  kind  of  beasts  into  a peach- 
orchard,  hogs  excepted^  for  fear  of  wounding  the  trees ; as 
the  least  wound  will  greatly  injure  the  tree,  by  draining 
away  that  substance  which  is  the  life  thereof:  although  the 
tree  may  live  many  years,  the  produce  is  not  so  great  ; nei- 
ther is  the  fruit  so  good.  After  the  old  stock  is  cut  away, 
the  third  year  after  transplanting,  the  sprouts  or  scions  will 
grow  up  all  round  the  old  stump,  from  four  to  six  in  num- 
ber ; no  more  will  come  to  maturity  than  the  old  stump  can 
support  and  nourish  ; the  remainder  will  die  before  ever 
they  bear  fruit.  These  may  be  cut  away,  taking  care 
not  to  wound  any  part  of  any  stock,  or  the  bark.  The 
sprouts  growing  all  round  the  old  stump,  when  loaded  with 
fruit,  will  bend,  and  rest  on  the  ground  in  every  direction, 
without  injuring  any  of  them,  for  many  years,  all  of  them 
being  rooted  in  the  ground  as  though  they  had  been  planted. 
The  stocks  will  remain  tough,  and  the  bark  smooth,  for 
twenty  years  and  upwards.  If  any  of  the  sprouts  or  trees 
from  the  old  stump  should  happen  to  split  off,  or  die,  cut  them 
away ; they  will  be  supplied  from  the  ground  by  young 
trees,  so  that  you  will  have  trees  from  the  same  stump  for 
one  hundred  years,  as  I believe.  I now  have  trees,  thirty- 
six,  twenty,  ten,  five,  and  down  to  one  year  old,  all  from  the 
same  stump.  The  young  trees,  coming  up,  after  any  of  the 
old  trees  split  off  or  die,  and  are  cut  away,  will  bear  fruit 
the  second  year  : but  this  fruit  will  not  ripen  so  easily  as 
the  fruit  on  the  old  trees  from  the  same  stem.  Three 
years  after  the  trees  are  cut  off  by  the  ground,  they  will  be 
sufficiently  large  and  bushy  to  shade  the  ground,  so  as  to 
prevent  grass  of  any  kind  from  matting  or  binding  the  sur- 
face so  as  to  injure  the  trees ; therefore  ploughing  is  use- 
less, as  well  as  injurious ; useless,  because  nothing  can  be 
raised  in  the  orchard,  by  reason  the  trees  will  shade  all  the 
ground,  or  nearly  so;  injurious,  because  either  the  roots, 
stock,  or  branches  will  be  wounded  ; neither  is  it  necessary 
ever  to  manure  peach-trees,  as  manured  trees  will  always 
produce  less  and  worse  fruit  than  trees  that  are  not  ma- 
nured ; although  by  manuring  your  peach-trees  they  will 
grow  larger,  and  look  greener  and  thicker  in  the  boughs, 
and  cause  a thicker  shade,  yet  on  them  will  grow  very  little 
fruit,  and  that  little  will  be  of  a very  bad  kind — generally 
looking  as  green  as  the  leaves,  even  when  ripe,  and  later 
than  those  that  have  never  been  manured.” 


* This  assertion  is  directly  contrary  to  the  experience  of  a gentleman  in  New 
Jersey,  who  has  remarkably  fine  peaches,  regularly  manures  his  trees  every 


238 


PEACXl-THEE. 


Professor  Say,  of  Philadelphia,  has  given  the  following 
scientific  description  of  the  peach-insect : — 

“ jEgcria  exitiosa, — Male. — Body,  steel  blue  : aiitennccj 
hairy  on  the  inner  side,  black,  with  a tinge  of  blue  : palpi 
beneath,  and  basal  band  of  the  head  above  and  beneath, 
pale  yellow  : eges^  black  brown  : thorax,  with  two  pale 
yellow  longitudinal  lines,  and  a transverse  one  behind,  in- 
terrupted above ; a spot  of  the  same  colour  beneath  the  ori- 
gin of  the  wings  ; wingSy  hyaline,  nervures  and  margin  steel 
blue,  more  dilated  on  the  costal  margin  and  anastomosing 
band  of  the  superior  wings  : feet  coxcSy  t\vo  bands  on  the 
tibia,  including  the  spines : incisures  of  the  posterior  tarsi, 
and  anterior  tarsi  behind,  pale  yellow  : abdomeiiy  with  two 
very  narrow,  pale  yellow  bands,  of  w^hich  one  is  near  the 
base,  and  the  other  in  the  middle ; tally  fringed,  the  fringe 
margined  with  white  each  side. — Length,  to  the  tip  of 
the  tail,  more  than  three  fourths  of  an  inch. — Length,  to  the 
tip  of  the  wings,  one  tenth  of  an  inch  shorter. 

Female. — Body,  very  dark  steel  blue,  with  a tinge  of 
purple  : palpi  beneath,  black  : thorax,  immaculate  : inferior 
wingsy  hyaline,  with  an  opaque  margin,  and  longitudinal 
line ; the  latter,  and  the  costal  margin,  are  dilated  : terguniy 
with  the  fifth  segment  bright  fulvous. — Length,  seven 
tenths  of  an  inch. 

“ The  PUPA  has  two  semifacise  of  spines  upon  each  of  the 
segments,  excepting  the  three  terminal  ones,  which  have  a 
single  row  only. 

“ The  FOLLICLE  is  brown,  oblong-oval,  and  is  composed 
of  small  pieces  of  bark  and  earth,  closely  connected  together 
by  the  web  of  the  animal. 

The  very  great  disparity  of  markings  between  the  sexes 
of  this  destructive  species,  would  lead  us  to  hesitate  in  ad- 
mitting their  identity,  if  we  were  not  aware  that,  in  this 
genus,  the  males  and  females,  in  several  instances,  differ 
exceedingly  from  each  other.  In  the  present  instance,  this 
difference  is  so  great  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  construct  a 
specific  character  which  shall  distinguish  them  from  all 
others  of  the  genus.  After  a careful  examination  of  ento- 
mological works,  I have  not  been  able  to  find  any  notice 
whatever  of  this  species.  I therefore  describe  it  as  new.” 
— Journal  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 

year,  and  asserts  that  the  speedy  decay  of  common  peach-trees  is  owing  chiefly 
to  a neglect  of  the  practice.  He  even  said  experience  convinced  him  it  weis» 
owing  to  the  same  circumstance  that  peach-stones  did  not,  in  general,  produce 
fruit  like  the  original  tree. 


PEACH-TREE. 


239 


Dr.  Thaddens  W.  Harris  has  written  a paper  on  this  in- 
sect, which  was  published  in  the  N,  E,  Farmer^  vol.  v. 
p.  33,  and  observes,  that  One  of  the  first  writers  who  de- 
scribed the  peach-tree  insect  was  the  late  Dr.  Benjamin 
Smith  Barton,  the  celebrated  botanist,  and  professor  of  nat- 
ural history  in  the  univ  ersity  of  Pennsylvania.  In  his  me- 
moirs on  various  destructive  insects,  which  obtained  the 
Magellanic  premium,  in  1806,  from  the  Philosophical  So- 
ciety of  Philadelphia,  this  insect  is  called  Zxjcjama  Fersica,'^'* 
Dr.  Harris  also  observes,  ‘‘he”  (Dr.  Barton)  “having  first 
described  this  insect,  the  name  which  he  has  imposed  has 
the  priority,  and  must  be  retained.” 

“ This  insect,”  continues  Dr.  Harris,  “ I first  obtained  in 
the  perfect  state  in  July,  1823,  and  sent  a description  of  it  to 
Hon.  John  Lowell.  It  is  a remarkable  coincidence,  that  the 
name  which  I then  gave  it  is  the  same  as  that  given  by  Dr. 
Barton,  although  I was  then  unacquainted  with  his  account 
of  it.  I also  obtained  a specimen  of  the  male  from  an  excres- 
cence on  the  trunk  of  a cherry-tree,,  and  have  frequently 
observed  the  larvis  in  those  tubercles  which  deform  the 
limbs  of  that  tree. 

“ The  females  deposit  their  eggs,  in  the  month  of  August, 
on  the  trunk  of  the  peach-tree,  near  the  root ; the  eggs  are 
soon  hatched,  and  the  larvae  immediately  penetrate  beneath 
the  bark.  Some  eggs  are  laid  as  late  as  the  last  of 
September. 

“ The  precautions  which  I would  recommend  are,  to  re- 
move the  earth  around  the  roots,  carefully  to  search  it  and 
the  trees  for  any  cocoons  of  larvae  which  may  exist  there, 
which  should  be  crushed  or  bumed^  This  operation  should 
be  commenced  early  in  this  month  [August.]  Then  cover  the 
trunk  with  the  common  composition,  or  wash  and  surround 
it  with  coarse  paper,  such  as  is  used  for  sheathing,  and 
which  is  manufactured  from  junk,  or  old  cordage.  This  is 
to  be  properly  secured  by  strings  of  Canton  matting,  and 
should  extend  two  or  three  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  six  or  seven  inches  above  it.  Mortar  may 
now  be  placed  round  the  roots,  so  as  to  confine  the  paper, 
and  prevent  access  beneath  it,  and  the  remaining  cavity 
filled  with  fresh  loam.  The  strings  may  be  removed  after 
the  winter  commences  ; in  the  spring  the  tree  should  again 
be  searched  for  any  of  the  larvae,  which  may  have  escaped 
^t  first,  and  the  application  of  the  composition  and  loam  be 
renewed. 

“ In  getting  out  the  eaterpillar,  we  should  be  sparing  in 


240 


PEACH-TREE. 


the  use  of  the  knife  ; a piece  of  wire  will  often  answer  the 
purpose  quite  as  well,  and  does  not  wound  the  bark.” 

Mr.  Wilson,  of  New  York,  in  his  Economy  of  the  Kitchen 
Garden^  &c.,  a valuable  work,  lately  published,  says, 
“ Grafting-clay,  applied  to  the  bark  of  trees,  does  not  injure 
the  circulation,  and,  if  the  stems  of  peach-trees  were  en- 
veloped with  a thin  coat  of  it,  I am  persuaded  no  wcim. 
could  hurt  them.  If  properly  prepared  and  applied,  it  ad- 
heres to  the  stem,  or  any  other  part  of  a tree,  with  great 
tenacity,  until  expanded  and  broken  by  the  frosts  and  thaws 
of  winter.  It  is  made  in  the  following  manner : — Take 
three  parts  of  any  kind  of  clay,  free  from  stones,  the  stilfer 
the  better,  one  part  of  horse-dung,  free  from  straws,  and 
one  part  of  fresh,  but  not  thin,  cow^-dung;  mix  and  incor- 
porate the  whole  well  together,  adding  a sufficient  quantity 
of  water  to  render  it  of  a consistency  of  good,  stiff  mortar  ; 
beat  and  work  it  thoroughly  with  the  spade,  till  it  becomes 
as  smooth  and  tough  as  putty.  It  will  then  be  fit  for  ap- 
plying round  the  stem  of  your  tree,  and  should  be  neatly 
clapped  on  it  by  the  hands.” 

The  same  writer  attributes  the  degeneracy  of  peach-trees, 
so  far  as  it  is  real,  to  the  cultivation  of  old  sorts,  and  ob- 
serves, that  Budding  or  grafting  from  old  trees,  upon  new 
stocks,  raised  from  seed,  although  it  is  the  means  of  afford- 
ing a fresh  supply  of  vigorous  nourishment  to  the  scion  of 
the  old  sort,  which  is  to  form  a new  tree,  is  still  only  a new 
mode  of  the  continuation, of  the  same  individual;”  and 
advises,  in  substance,  either  to  bud  or  graft  from  new  sorts, 
on  seedling  stocks,  or  to  raise  young  trees  from  seedlings, 
produced  from  seeds  of  healthy,  young,  or  middle-aged 
trees,  which  are  not  of  a w^orn-out  variety. 

Mr.  Wilson,  moreover,  observes,  “ Great  mischief  is  fre- 
quently done  by  cutting  off  the  tops  of  peach-trees,  when 
they  are  first  set  out.  If  they  are  furnished  with  good 
heads,  as  they  always  ought  to  be,  before  they  are  taken 
from  the  nursery,  no  other  pruning  should  be  given  them  at 
setting  out,  except  the  moderate  retrenching  of  any  ver}’^ 
irregular  shoots,  and  this  should  be  done  at  the  time  the 
buds  begin  to  expand ; and  the  chief  pruning  they  require 
afterwards  is,  to  keep  their  heads  moderately  open  by  cut- 
ting out  such  branches  as  crowd  upon  or  interfere  with 
each  other.” 

Mode  of  hearing, — “ All  the  varieties  of  the  peach  and 
nectarine  bear  the  fruit  upon  the  young  ^vood  of  a year  old ; 
the  blossom  buds  rising  immediately  from  the  eyes  of  the 


PEAR-TREE. 


241 


shoots.  The  same  shoot  seldom  bears  after  the  first  yeu*, 
except  on  some  casual,  small  spurs,  on  the  two  years’  wood, 
which  is  not  to  be  counted  upon.  Hence  the  trees  are  to 
be  pruned,  as  bearing  entirely  on  the  shoots  of  the  preced- 
ing year ; and  a full  supply  of  every  year’s  shoots  must  be 
trained  in  for  successional  bearers. 

Thinning  the  fruit, — “ In  favourable  seasons,  the  blos- 
soms often  set  more  fruit  than  they  can  support,  or  than 
have  room  to  attain  full  growth ; and  if  all  were  to  remain, 
it  would  hurt  the  trees  in  their  future  bearing ; therefore 
they  should  be  timely  thinned,  when  of  the  size  of  large 
peas,  or  half-grown  gooseberries.  There  should  be  a pre- 
paratory thinning  at  the  time  of  stoning,  and  a final  thin- 
ning afterwards,  because  most  plants,  especially  such  as 
have  overborne  themselves,  drop  many  fruit  at  that  crisis. 
Finish  the  thinning  with  great  regularity,  leaving  those  re- 
tained at  proper  distances,  three,  four,  or  five,  on  strong 
shoots,  two  or  three  on  middling,  and  one  or  two  on  the 
weaker  shoots  ; and  never  leaving  more  than  one  peach  at 
the  same  eye.  The  fruit  on  weakly  trees  thin  more  in 
proportion.” — Abercrombie, 

Use. — The  use  of  the  peach,  as  a dessert-fruit  of  the  first 
order,  is  too  well  known  to  require  observation.  In  seve- 
ral of  the  Southern  States,  a sort  of  brandy  is  made  from  this 
fruit.  This  liquor,  however,  though  highly  flavoured,  is 
said  to  be  unwholesome. 

The  following  mode  of  drying  peaches  has  been 
practised  by  Thomas  Belangee,  of  Egg  Harbour,  Hew 
Jersey  : — 

He  has  a small  house,  with  a stove  in  it,  and  drawers  in 
the  sides  of  the  house,  lathed  at  their  bottoms.  Each 
drawer  will  hold  nearly  half  a bushel  of  peaches,  which 
should  be  ripe,  and  not  peeled,  but  cut  in  two,  and  laid  on 
the  laths,  with  their  skins  downwards,  so  as  to  save  the 
juice.  On  shoving  the  drawer  in,  they  are  soon  dried  by 
the  hot  air  of  the  stove,  and  laid  up.  Peaches,  thus  dried, 
eat  like  raisins.  With  a paring-machine,  which  may  be 
had  for  a dollar  or  two,  apples  or  pears  may  be  pared,  and 
a sufficient  quantity  dried,  to  keep  a family  in  pies,  and 
apple-bread  and  milk,  till  apples  come  again.  With  a par- 
ing machine,  one  person  can  pare  for  five  or  six  cutters. 

PEAR-TREE. — Pyrus  communis. — The  pear-tree  is 
found  in  a wild  state  in  Europe  as  far  north  as  latitude  51®. 
It  grows  in  almost  any  soil,  and  seems  to  be  quite  at  home 

New  England.  In  a dry  soil  (according  to  Loudon)  it 
21 


242 


PEAR-TREE. 


will  exist  for  centuries,  and  still  keep  in  health,  productive- 
ness and  vigour. 

Propagation, — The  pear  may  be  propagated  by  layers  or 
suckers,  but  not  easily  by  cuttings.  These  modes,  however, 
are  productive  of  very  indifferent  plants,  and  are  justly  reject- 
ed in  favour  of  raising  from  seed,  and  grafting  or  budding. 

From  seed, — This  mode  is  adopted  either  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  new  varieties,  or  for  producing  pear-stocks. 
The  manner  of  procuring  seedlings  is  the  same  as  directed 
for  the  apple-tree,  page  17.  Professor  Van  Mons,  pro- 
prietor of  the  Pepiniere  de  la  Fidelite^  at  Brussels,  has  up 
wards  of  eight  hundred  approved  sorts  of  new  pears,  raised 
from  seed  by  himself,  and  M.  Duquesne,  of  Mons,  in  the 
course  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  years,  and  selected  from  prob- 
ably eight  thousand  new  seedling  fruits.  Van  Mons  ob- 
served to  Neill,  that  he  seldom  failed  in  procuring 
valuable  apples  from  the  seed  ; for  those  which  were  not 
adapted  to  the  garden  as  dessert-fruit,  were  probably  suited 
for  the  orchard,  and  fit  for  baking,  or  cider  making.  With 
pears  the  case  was  different,  many  proving  so  bad  as  to  be 
unfit  for  any  purpose. — Horticul,  Jour,^  &c.  309.  When- 
ever a seedling  indicates,  by  the  blunt  shape,  thickness, 
and  woolliness  of  its  leaves,  or  by  the  softness  of  its  bark 
and  fulness  of  its  buds,  the  promise  of  future  good  qual- 
ities as  a fruit-bearing  tree,  Van  Mons  takes  a graft  from 
it,  and  places  it  on  a well  established  stock  : the  value  of 
its  fruit  is  thus  much  sooner  ascertained. — Horticul,  Jour,^ 
&c.  3i0.  At  Brussels,  seedlings  yield  fruit  in  four  or  five 
years;  in  Britain,  seldom  before  seven  or  ten  years  have 
elapsed.  The  fruit  of  the  first  year  of  bearing  is  always 
inferior  to  that  of  the  second  and  third  years.  If  a pear  or 
an  apple  possess  a white  and  heavy  pulp,  with  juice  of 
rather  pungent  acidity,  it  may  be  expected  in  the  second, 
third,  and  subsequent  years,  greatly  to  improve  in  size  and 
flavour.  Nev/  varieties  of  pears,  and  indeed  of  all  fruits, 
are  more  likely  to  be  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  new  than  of 
old  soits. — Horticul,  Jour,^  &c.  308,  309. 

As  the  varieties  of  the  pear  do  not  reproduce  them- 
selves from  the  seed ; as  the  plants  furnished  by  layers,  cut- 
tings, and  suckers,  are  very  indifferent ; and  as  seedlings  are 
slow  in  giving  their  fruit;  it  follows,  that  the  pear  is  prin- 
cipally propagated  by  scions  and  buds.  These  are  placed 
on  pear  or  quince  stocks,  according  as  taste  or  interest  may 
invite  to  early  and  small  crops  of  fine  quality,  or  to  later 
and  more  abundant  ones  of  inferior  character.  In  the  for- 


PEAU-TUEE. 


243 


mer  case,  the  stem  of  the  quince  must  be  employed  ; and 
in  the  latter,  that  of  the  common  pear,  and  without  any 
material  difference  in  the  operation,  excepting  that  ‘ the 
feebler  the  stem,  the  nearer  to  the  earth  should  be  placed 
the  scion  or  the  bud.’ 

Notwithstanding  the  hardiness  ascribed  to  the  pear- 
tree,  we  know  not  any  of  the  kernel  class  more  readily  or 
sensibly  affected  than  it  by  particular  conditions  of  the  at- 
mosphere. A moist  and  cold  spring,  a wet  summer,  and 
a rainy  autumn,  are  alike  unpropitious  to  it.  In  either  of 
these  cases,  the  fruit  which  does  not  rot  is  watery  and 
tasteless ; and  when  all  take  place,  the  evil  extends  to  even 
a second  year ; as,  according  to  the  observations  of  Cour- 
sette,  ‘ long  continued  moisture  rarely  fails  to  convert  fruit 
buds  into  wood  buds.’ 

‘‘  The  second  year  after  budding  or  grafting,  the  plants 
may  be  removed  to  the  places  where  it  is  intended  they 
shall  stand  ; and  as  the  manner  and  time  of  doing  this  do 
not  differ  from  those  prescribed  for  the  apple-tree,  we  may 
spare  ourselves  and  our  readers  the  trouble  of  a repetition 
of  our  directions  on  those  heads. 

With  respect  to  exposition  and  soil,  though  the  pear- 
tree  may  be  made  to  grow  any  where,  still  it  will  succeed 
badly  on  the  north  sides  of  hills,  or  in  stiff,  dry  soils,  and  still 
worse  on  those  which  rest  on  a wet  sub-soil.  Some  of  its 
later  and  finer  varieties  require  and  deserve  a deep  substan- 
tial loam,  occasionally  refreshed  with  a dressing  of  well  rotted 
dung,  and  some  of  the  best  aspects  the  garden  can  furnish. 

Cultivated  as  standards  and  pyramids,  the  young  trees 
should  be  left,  in  a great  degree,  to  regulate  their  own 
shape,*  and  if  interference  become  proper  at  all,  it  should 
be  conducted — ‘to  keep  the  middle  of  the  head  pretty 
open,  and  the  sides  well  balanced.’!  Trees  of  other  forms, 
and  intended  for  walls  and  espaliers,  require  more  labour 
and  management,  and  a degree  of  both  summer  and  winter 
pruning  : the  former  of  which  consists  in  rubbing  off  all 
fore-right,  ill  placed,  superfluous,  or  spongy  shoots,  before 
they  become  so  hard  as  to  render  the  use  of  the  knife 
necessary ; while  the  latter  (performed  during  any  tem- 
perate weather  between  November  and  April)  is  con- 


* Knight  remarks,  that,  in  genera],  very  little  pruning  is  required  for  pear- 
standards  or  pyramids ; but  that  there  are  sorts  which  form  heads  resembling 
those  of  apple-trees,  and  that  for  these  pruning  may  be  beneficial. 

t To  produce  a well  balanced  tree,  shorten  the  wood  of  tlie  deficient  side, 
and  leave  the  other  to  itself. 


244 


PEAK-TREE, 


ducted  on  the  general  rule  ‘ of  sparing  all  such  well 
placed  and  thriving  laterals,  as  may  be  necessary  for  pre- 
serving the  form  given  to  the  head  of  the  tree,  and  of  cut- 
ting away  all  others  close  to  the  branch  from  which  they 
grow.’  If  the  older  wood  be  diseased  or  redundant,  cut 
this  away  also,  or  shorten  it  down  to  some  healthy  and 
promising  shoots.  The  retained  branches,  if  growing 
against  a wall  or  trellis,  should,  after  each  pruning,  be  laid 
down  and  nailed,  with  as  much  extension  as  can  conve- 
niently be  given  to  them. 

“Mr.  Knight’s  mode  of  training  the  pear-tree  is,  to 
leave  on  the  young  stock  two  lateral  branches  on  each  side. 
When  about  six  feet  high,  he  transplants  the  tree  early  in 
the  spring,  and  inserts  grafts  on  each  side  of  the  laterals, 
so  that  two  of  them  shall  push  from  the  stem  about  four 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  two  others  from  the  summit,  the 
ensuing  year.  The  shoots  produced  by  these  grafts,  when 
about  a foot  long,  are  to  be  trained  downward — the  lower 
ones  almost  p^q^  :ndicularly,  and  the  upper  ones  just  below  a 
horizontal  line  ; and  so  placed,  as  to  distance,  that  the  leaves 
of  the  one  will  not  at  all  shade  the  other.  Continue  this 
mode  of  training  the  second  year,  and  in  the  third  you  may 
expect  an  abundant  crop  of  fruit. 

“ When  an  old  tree  becomes  unproductive,  one  of  two 
methods  should  be  adopted — either  to  cut  down  within 
eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  from  the  ground,  and  train  up 
anew  some  selected  shoots  which  may  have  pushed  from 
the  stump,  (which  is  the  method  of  Forsyth,)  or,  to 
take  off  at  its  base  every  branch  which  does  not  want  at 
least  twenty  degrees  of  being  perpendicular,  and  all  spurs 
from  such  other  branches  as  by  this  rule  will  be  left.  Into 
these,  (the  retained  branches,)  at  their  subdivisions,  and  at 
different  distances  from  their  bases,  quite  to  their  extremi- 
ties, grafts  must  be  carefully  inserted  ; which,  when  they  at- 
tain sufficient  length,  (say  twelve  inches,)  must  be  trained 
downward  between  the  branches,  as  directed  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph.” — Armstrong, 

The  diseases  of  the  pear-tree,  and  the  insects  which 
infest  it,  are  in  general  the  same  with  those  to  which  ap- 
ple-trees are  liable.  Soft  soap  is  said  to  be  an  excellent 
application  to  the  stem  and  limbs,  preventing  the  decline 
of  the  tree,  and  causing  the  bark  to  become  smooth  and 
glossy.  A solution  of  potash,  as  recommended  for  the  apple- 
tree,  (page  222,)  would  no  doubt  prove  equally  useful  to  this 
tree.  Pear-trees  have  of  late  years  been  subject  to  a malady, 


PEAR-TREE. 


245 


by  some  supposed  to  be  fire-blight,  but  by  others  attributed 
to  an  insect  called  Scolytus pyri.  During  the  months  of  June 
and  July,  the  extreme  branches  turn  black,  as  if  scorched. 
The  disorder  extends  downwards  to  the  larger  limbs,  and 
continues  to  increase,  till,  in  some  instances,  the  tree  is  en- 
tirely destroyed.  It  is  sometimes  so  rapid  in  its  progress, 
that,  in  a few  hours  from  its  first  appearance,  the  whole  tree 
will  appear  to  be  mortally  diseased,  and  all  its  foliage  withered 
or  withering.  A writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer^  vol. 
ii.  p.  42,  says,  that,  on  the  first  appearance,  of  this  disease, 
‘‘  I instantly  sawed  off  all  the  limbs  affected,  and  proceeded 
to  examine  them.  I found  at  last  the  enemy,  not  at  the 
point  where  death  ensued,  but  some  inches  below  it.  The 
insect  was  very  small,  and  apparently  incapable  of  such  ex- 
tensive mischief,  but  the  effect  was  certain,  and  the  manner 
of  producing  that  effect  was  obvious.  It  had  eaten  a com- 
plete circle  of  the  alburnum,  or  sap  wood,  not  exceeding  the 
size  of  a knitting  needle,  so  as  completely  to  intercept  the 
passage  of  the  sap.”  This  insect  the  writer  exhibited  to 
Professor  Peck,  whence  arose  his  account  of  it,  first  pub- 
lished in  the  Mass.  Agr.  Repos. and  republished,  together 
with  a cut  of  the  insect,  in  the  N.  E.  Fanner^  vol.  v.  p. 
2.  The  late  Professor  Peck  observed,  that  the  mischievous 
effects  of  this  minute  insect  may  be  observed  in  June  and 
July,  and  that  the  dead  part  of  the  branches  should  be  cut 
off,  and  burnt  without  delay.  The  writer  above  referred 
to  says,  that,  by  steadily  pursuing  the  system  of  cutting  off 
the  limbs  many  inches  below  the  apparent  injury,  and  burn- 
ing them,  the  insects  have  been  extirpated  from  his  estate. 

Some  writers  attribute  the  sudden  decay  of  the  pear- 
tree  to  the  overpowering  rays  of  the  sun.  Others  say  that 
a warm  winter  sets  the  sap  in  motion,  which  a cold  spring 
arrests,  and  causes  it  to  stagnate  and  become  corrupt  in  the 
pores  of  the  alburnum.  Others  are  of  opinion  that  manur- 
ing too  high,  and  pruning  too  much,  causes  the  tree  to  die 
of  a plethora  or  surfeit.  The  remedy,  however,  is  not  a 
subject  of  so  much  dispute.  In  all  cases  of  blight,  the 
only  cure  or  palliation  of  the  disorder  is  found  in  sawing  off 
the  affected  branches,  some  inches  below  where  the  blight 
appears. 

Use. — “ As  a dessert  fruit  the  pear  is  much  esteemed, 
and  generally  preferred  to  the  apple.  It  is  also  used  for 
baking,  compotes.,  marmalade,  &c.  Pared  and  dried  in  the 
oven,  the  fruit  will  keep  several  years,  either  with  or  with- 
out sugar.  This  mode  of  preparing  the  pear  is  about  as 
21  • 


246 


PEPPER,  RED. PLUM-TREE. 


common  in  France,  as  the  making  of  apple-pies  is  in  Britain, 
and  what  is  favourable  to  the  practice  is,  that  bad  eating 
sorts  answer  best  for  drying.  The  wood  of  the  pear-tree  is 
light,  smooth,  and  compact,  and  is  used  by  turners,  and  to 
make  joiners’  tools,  picture-frames  to  be  dyed  black,  &c. 
The  leaves  will  produce  a yellow  dye,  and  may  be  used  to 
give  a green  to  blue  cloth.” — Loudon. 

PEPPER,  RED. — Capsicum. — This  plant  requires  a 
warm,  rich  soil,  and  a favourable  exposition.  The  seeds 
may  be  placed  in  rows,  three  feet  apart,  or  in  hills,  at  that 
distance  from  each  other.  In  dry  weather  they  will  need 
watering,  and  should  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  frequent 
hoeing.  The  seeds  are  best  preserved  by  running  a string 
through  the  pods,  and  hanging  them  in  a dry  place. 

Use. — ‘‘  Pepper  is  an  excellent  spice,  which  should 
always  be  coarsely  ground,  and  eaten  only  with  fat,  smoked, 
or  tough  animal  food ; with  cabbages,  cucumbers,  and  other 
flatulent  and  cold  vegetables  ; and  likewise  with  fish,  and 
all  substances  that  are  difficult  to  be  digested.  On  the 
continent  of  Europe,  this  spice  is  highly  esteemed  for  its 
efficacy  in  relieving  flatulency,  weak,  or  impaired  digestion, 
and  the  giddiness  which  generally  accompanies  the  com- 
plaint last  mentioned.  For  this  purpose,  from  six  to  ten 
grains  are  directed  to  be  swallowed  every  morning,  previ- 
ously to  taking  food  ; such  practice,  however,  ought  to  be 
adopted  only  in  cases  where  the  stomach  is  in  a high  de- 
gree vitiated,  or  the  patient  has  been  habituated  to  the  free 
use  of  spices  and  spirituous  liquors.” — Dom.  Encyc. 

PLUM-TREE. — Primus  domestica. — This  tree  is  found 
growing  wild  in  Great  Britain  arid  other  parts  of  Europe  ; 
but  its  native  country  is  supposed,  by  European  writers,  to 
be  Syria,  in  Asia.  It  is  also  indigenous  in  North  America, 
and  a wild  kind,  found  in  the  woods  of  Vermont,  grows 
large  and  fair,  but  its  fruit  contains  little  saccharine  matter. 
No  doubt  it  might  be  improved  by  culture,  and  may  fur- 
nish stocks  for  grafting.  Some  of  the  most  approved  varie- 
ties are  enumerated  under  the  head  Fruit,  p.  136. 

Soil  and  cidtivation. — Plums,  according  to  Miller,  should 
have  a middling  soil,  neither  too  wet  and  heavy,  nor  over 
light  and  dry.  Armstrong  recommends  argillaceous  soils, 
not  very  wet  nor  very  dry.  Where,  from  previous  cul- 
ture, or  accidental  causes,  the  earth  becomes  either  very 
rich  or  very  poor,  the  tree  does  not  succeed.  In  the  one 
case,  its  vigour  is  directed  only  to  the  production  of  wood 
and  foliage ; and  in  the  other,  its  growth  is  feeble,  and  its 


PLUM-TREE. 


247 


life  short.  In  favourable  climates,  it  should  alw^ays  be  cul- 
tivated as  a standard,  and  will  then  require  only  a little  an- 
nual labour  about  the  roots,  and  the  removal  from  the  head 
of  dead  or  dying  branches ; but,  in  northern  latitudes, 
and  cold  situations,  the  espalier  form,  (as  practised  near 
Paris,)  may  be  not  only  useful,  but  indispensable.  This 
differs  in  nothing  from  the  ordinary  mode,  but  in  pruning 
less  severely.  The  cultivators  at  Montreuil,  instead  of 
shortening  the  branches  to  three  or  four  eyes,  leave  them 
fifteen  or  twenty  feet  long,  and  lay  them  down  in  such  a 
way  as  shall  soonest  and  most  completely  enable  them  to 
cover  the  frame  to  which  they  are  attached. 

“ With  regard  to  product,  ‘few  and^we’  is  the  general 
maxim.  The  thinning  discipline  must  not,  therefore,  be 
omitted ; because  it  is  that  which  will  best  fulfil  both  parts 
of  the  rule.” 

Diseases. — The  gum  and  canker  are  the  diseases  most 
common  to  plum-trees,  for  which,  heading  down  is  pre- 
scribed as  the  best  remedy.  Plum-trees  are  also  annoyed 
by  an  insect,  described,  by  Professor  Peck,  in  the  Mass. 
Agr.  Repository  for  1819,  and  by  him  denominated  Ryn- 
chcenus  cerasi.  The  insect  causes  tumors,  or  irregular, 
black  lumps,  which  deform  the  bark,  and  occasion  the  pre- 
mature fall,  not  only  of  plums,  but  peaches  and  apricots. 
“ The  evil,”  according  to  Professor  Peck,  “ produced  by  this 
insect,  cannot  be  wholly  remedied  ; but  something  may  be 
done  to  diminish  the  mischief,  by  cutting  off  the  diseased 
branches.”  They  should,  according  to  his  directions,  be 
cut  off  the  last  half  of  June,  and  burnt  immediately. 

Mr.  R.  Toohey,  gardener,  of  Waltham,  Mass.,  recom- 
mends the  following  composition  for  destroying  insects, 
which  infest  plum-trees  : — 

“ Take  of  tobacco-juice  one  gallon ; this  may  be  had  of 
the  tobacconists,  or  you  may  make  it,  by  putting  some  to- 
bacco in  warm  water,  (not  boiling,  as  that  will  take  off  a 
great  part  of  the  oil;)  oil  of  tar,  one  quart;  train  oil,  one 
quart ; soft  soap,  one  and  a half  pound ; and  a quarter  of  a 
pound  of  soot.  Beat  the  oils  together  first,  and  then  the 
soap  and  soot,  till  well  united ; then  pour  them  all  into  the 
tobacco-juice,  stirring  them  gently  together.  When  the 
liquid  is  cold,  it  is  fit  for  use.  It  should  be  applied  with  a 
common  paint-brush,  in  the  latter  end  of  March,  or  first  ot 
April. 

“ Previous  to  applying  the  mixture,  I should  recommena 
pruning,  and,  when  the  trees  are  very  much  affected  with 


248 


POTATO. 


the  above-mentioned  disease,  heading  down  at  a,  ft,  c,  e, 
or  /,  according  to  the  size  of  the  trees ; if  any  of  the  ulcers 
should  remain  after  pruning  or  heading  down,  they  must  be 
entirely  removed  from  the  tree,  and  then  apply  the  compo- 
sition.”— N.  E,  Farmer^  vol.  vi.  p.  274. 

POTATO. — Sir  Joseph  Banks  (Hart,  Trans,  i.  8)  consid- 
ers that  the  potato  was  first  brought  to  Spain  from  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  South  America,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Quito.  To  England,  however,  this  root  found  its  way  by 
a different  route,  being  brought  from  Virginia  by  the  colo- 
nists sent  out  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  1586. 

Varieties. — These  are  very  numerous,  not  only  from  the 
facility  of  procuring  new  sorts  by  raising  them  from  seed, 
but  because  any  variety  cultivated  for  a few  years,  in  the 
same  soil  and  situation,  as  in  the  same  garden  or  farm,  ac- 
quires a peculiarity  of  character  and  habit,  which  distin- 
guishes it  from  the  same  variety  in  a different  soil  and  situ- 
ation. Dr.  Hunter,  in  his  Georgical  Essay Sj  has  supposed 
the  duration  of  a variety  is  limited  to  fourteen  years ; and 
Knight  concurs  with  him  in  opinion.  Potatoes,  which  are 
excellent  in  Ireland,  Nova  Scotia,  and  other  high  northern 
latitudes,  do  not  answer  a good  purpose  in  New  England. 
The  potato  taken  from  the  south  prospers  better,  such  as  the 
River  Plate,  or  long  red  potato,  which  has  succeeded  well  in 
Massachusetts.  Loudon  asserts,  that  the  best  mode  to  or- 
der potatoes  for  seed  is,  to  give  a general  description  of 
the  size,  colour,  form,  and  quality  wanted,  and  whether  for 
an  early  or  late  crop,  without  being  guided  by  the  names 
attached  to  any  varieties. 

Propagation. — The  potato  may  be  propagated  from  seed, 
cuttings,  or  layers  of  the  green  shoots,  sprouts  from  the  eyes 
of  the  tubers,  [roots,]  or  portions  of  the  tubers  containing  a 
bud  or  eye,  or  by  planting  the  tubers  whole.  The  object 
of  the  first  method  is  to  procure  a new  or  improved  varie- 
ty ; of  the  second,  little  more  than  curiosity,  or  to  multiply, 
as  quickly  as  possible,  a rare  sort ; and  of  the  third,  to  save 
the  tubers  for  food.  The  methods,  by  portions  of  the 
tubers,  [the  roots  cut  in  pieces,]  or  whole  potatoes,  are  the 
best,  and  almost  universally  practised,  for  the  general  pur- 
poses both  of  field  and  garden  culture. 

By  seed.r^^^^  Take  the  apples,  in  the  beginning  of  Octo- 
ber, [or  whenever  they  are  ripe,]  before  the  frost  has  hurt 
them  I hang  them  up  by  the  foot  stalks,  in  a dry  closet, 
where  they  will  not  freeze ; let  them  hang  till  March,  or 
Aprji  ^ then  mash  the  apples,  wash  the  seeds  from  the  pulp. 


POTATO. 


249 


and  dry  them  in  a sunny  window.  Sow  the  seeds  in  a 
bed  about  the  first  of  May.  When  the  plants  are  four  or 
five  inches  high,  transplant  them  into  ground  well  pre- 
pared, one  or  two  plants  in  a hill.” — Deane.  Seeds  from 
the  same  ball  will  produce  a great  variety  of  kinds,  some 
of  which  may  be  of  little  value ; and  in  order  to  make  the 
most  of  such  experiments,  it  will  be  well  to  proceed  accord- 
ing to  the  following  directions,  extracted  from  some  re- 
marks by  Col.  Pickering,  contained  in  a pamphlet  published 
by  the  Essex  Agricultural  Society,  Mass. ; this  society  having 
awarded  premiums  for  the  best  potatoes  raised  from  the 
seed. 

1.  Seeing  the  seeds  in  the  same  ball  will  produce  vari- 
ous sorts  of  potatoes,  it  will  be  indispensably  necessary, 
that  each  young  plant  grows  at  the  distance  of  eight  or  ten 
inches  apart. 

2.  In  autumn,  or  as  soon  as  the  vines  or  stems  of  the 
plants  die,  and  the  young  potatoes  are  dug  up,  those  of 
each  plant  are  to  be  saved  by  themselves,  and  it  will  be 
easy  to  put  each  sort  in  a separate  paper  bag.  Those  pota- 
toes will  be  very  small,  perhaps  from  the  size  of  a pigeon’s 
down  to  a sparrow’s  egg. 

3.  ‘‘  In  the  ensuing  spring,  the  potatoes  of  each  sort,  that 
is,  the  potatoes  of  each  bag,  must  be  planted  by  themselves ; 
and,  if  not  in  distinct  rows,  then  stakes,  driven  into  the 
ground,  should  mark  the  divisions  of  the  several  sorts  in 
the  same  rows,  leaving  a space  of  about  two  feet  between 
one  sort  and  another,  to  guard  against  any  mixture. 

4.  In  the  time  for  harvesting  them  in  the  second  year, 
the  potatoes  [if  grown  in  a good  soil]  will  be  large  enough 
to  be  boiled,  to  ascertain  their  quality.  Each  sort  must  be 
tried  by  itself.  Such  as  are  watery,  and  ill  flavoured,  may 
be  at  once  thrown  aside,  for  the  use  of  live  stock.  Every 
other  sort,  so  valuable  as  to  be  thought  worth  cultivating, 
must  be  kept  unmixed,  by  putting  each  kind  in  a separate 
bag  or  cask.” — N,  E.  Farmer^  vol.  vi.  p.  286. 

The  modes  of  propagating  by  layers,  cuttings  of  the  vines, 
suckers,  sprouts,  &c.,  are  rather  curious  than  useful,  and  are 
therefore  here  omitted,  but  may  be  seen  in  detail  in  the 
Encyc.  of  Gard.  p.  620. 

By  portions  of  the  tubers^  [or  cuttings  of  the  roots.] — In 
making  the  sets  or  sections,  reject  the  extreme  or  watery 
end  of  the  tuber,  as  apt  to  run  too  much  to  haulm,  [vine,] 
and  having  the  eyes  small,  and  in  a cluster ; reject  also  the 
root,  or  dry  end,  as  more  likely  to  be  tardy  in  growth,  and 


250 


POTATO. 


produce  the  curl.  Then  divide  the  middle  of  the  potato, 
so  as  to  have  not  more  than  one  good  eye  in  each  set. 
When  the  potato-scoop  [an  instrument  for  digging  out  the 
eyes  of  potatoes]  is  used,  take  care  to  apply  it  so  as  the  eye 
or  bud  may  be  in  the  centre  of  each  set,  which  this  instru- 
ment produces,  of  a semi-globular  form.  The  larger  the 
portion  of  tuber  left  to  each  eye,  so  much  the  greater  will 
be  the  progress  of  the  young  plants.” — Loudon. 

By  some  experiments  which  were  made  by  J.  Whitlaw, 
Esq.,  and  given  in  detail  in  the  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  i.  p.  53, 
and  vol.  iv.  p.  314,  these  two  important  facts  were  made 
apparent : 1st.  Large  potatoes  are  much  better  for  seed  than 
small  ones.  2d.  It  is  best  to  cut  off  the  but  and  top-ends 
from  each  potato,  and  cut  the  middle  pieces  into  quarters, 
before  planting.  Knight,  the  famous  English  horticulturist, 
has  found,  that,  for  a late  crop,  small  sets  [seed  potatoes] 
may  be  used  ; because  the  plants  of  the  late  varieties  al- 
ways acquire  considerable  age  before  they  begin  to  gene- 
rate tubers  ; but  for  an  early  crop,  he  recommends  the 
largest  tubers  ; and  he  has  found,  that  these  not  only  afford 
very  strong  plants,  but  also  such  as  readily  recover  when 
injured  by  frost ; for,  being  fed  by  a copious  reservoir  be- 
neath the  soil,  a re-production  of  vigorous  stems  and  foliage 
soon  takes  place,  when  those  first  produced  are  destroyed 
by  frost  or  other  cause.  He  adds,  When  the  planter  is 
anxious  to  obtain  a crop  within  the  least  possible  time,  he 
will  find  the  position,  in  which  the  tubers  are  placed  to 
vegetate,  by  no  means  a point  of  indifference  ; for  these, 
being  shoots  or  branches  which  have  grown  thick  instead 
of  elongating,  retain  the  disposition  of  branches  to  propel 
the  sap  to  their  leading  buds,  or  points  most  distant  from 
the  stems  of  the  plants  of  which  they  once  formed  parts. 
If  the  tubers  be  placed  with  their  leading  buds  upwards,  a 
few  very  strong  and  very  early  shoots  will  spring  from 
them  ; but  if  their  position  be  reversed,  many  weaker  and 
later  shoots  will  be  produced ; and  not  only  the  earliness, 
but  the  quality  of  the  produce,  in  size,  will  be  much  af- 
fected.”— Horl.  Trans,  iv.  p.  448. 

McMahon  advises  to  cut  seed  potatoes  “ a week  before 
planting,  in  order  that  the  wounds  should  have  time  to 
form  a dry  crust;  for,  if  planted  immediately  after  being  cut, 
they  imbibe  too  much  moisture,  many  of  them  rot,  and  the 
rest  are  greatly  weakened  thereby.”  Some  advise  to  wet 
seed  potatoes,  and  roll  them  in  pulverized  plaster  of  Paris, 
immediately  before  planting. 


POTATO. 


251 


From  an  experiment  made  by  a person  in  the  employ  of 
the  Hon.  Josiah  Quincy,  the  particulars  of  which  are  given  in 
J/a55.  Agr,  Repos,  vol.  v.  p.  G4,  it  appears  that  the  product 
of  certain  rows,  planted  with  whole  potatoes,  exceeded  an 
equal  extent  of  adjoining  rows  more  than  one  third.  A 
writer  for  the  N.  E.  Farmer^  vol.  i.  p.  330,  gives  an  experi- 
ment, which  tends  to  the  conclusion  that  potatoes  planted 
whole  produce  more  than  those  which  are  cut.  The  ex- 
periments of  most  cultivators,  however,  are  in  favour  of  cut- 
ting. Dr.  Cooper,  in  the  last  Philadelphia  edition  of  Wil~ 
lich^s  Domestic  Encyclopedia^  says,  The  best  mode  [with 
regard  to  seed  potatoes]  appears  to  be  this  : — choose  your 
potatoes  for  planting  of  a moderate  size,  rather  large  than 
small,  for  there  is  no  good  reason  to  be  assigned  for  breed- 
ing from  diminutive  parents  ; cut  your  potatoes  into  sets, 
two  eyes  to  a set ; throw  away,  without  hesitation,  into  the 
hog-trough,  all  the  inferior  and  diminutive  eyes,  choosing 
your  sets  from  the  middle  of  the  potato ; do  not  cut  the  po- 
tato down  the  middle.”  Loudon  observes,  In  preparing 
the  sets  of  potatoes,  some  cultivators  recommend  large  sets, 
others,  small  potatoes  entire.  Others,  on  the  ground  of 
experience,  are  equally  strenuous  in  support  of  small  cut- 
tings, sprouts,  shoots,  or  even  only  the  eyes  or  buds.  With 
all  these  different  sorts  of  sets,  good  crops  are  stated  to 
have  been  raised,  though  tolerable-sized  cuttings  of  pretty 
large  potatoes,  with  two  or  three  good  eyes  or  buds  in  each, 
are  probably  to  be  preferred.  A very  slight  exercise  of 
common  sense  might  have  saved  the  advocates  of  shoots, 
scooped-out  eyes,  &c.,  their  experiments  and  arguments,  it 
being  evident,  as  Brown  has  observed,  to  ev^ery  one  that 
has  any  practical  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  vegetables, 
that  the  strength  of  the  stem  in  the  outset  depends,  in  di- 
rect proportion,  upon  the  vigour  and  power  of  the  set. 
The  set,  therefore,  ought  to  be  large,  rarely  smaller  than 
the  fourth  part  of  the  potato ; and,  if  the  root  is  of  small 
size,  one  half  of  the  potato  may  be  profitably  used.  At  all 
events,  rather  err  in  giving  over-large  sets,  than  in  making 
them  too  small ; because,  by  the  first  error,  no  great  loss 
can  be  sustained ; whereas,  by  the  other,  a feeble  and  late 
crop  may  be  the  consequence.”  Deane  says,  The  shoot- 
ing parts  exist,  in  a potato,  in  the  form  of  a tree,  of  which 
the  stock  is  at  the  but  or  root-end.  I therefore  take  care 
to  cut  athwart  those  parts  as  little  as  possible  : though  they 
will  grow  any  way,  the  greater  length  of  shooting  stem 


352 


POTATO. 


there  is  in  a set,  the  more  strong  and  vigorous  will  be  its 
growth  at  first.” 

Quantity  of  sets. — Abercrombie  directs,  for  a plot  of  the 
early  and  secondary  crops^  eight  feet  wide  by  sixteen  in 
length,  planted  in  rows,  fifteen  inches  asunder  by  nine 
inches  in  the  row,  a quarter  of  a peck  of  roots  or  cuttings. 
For  fulUtimed  and  main  crops^  a compartment,  twelve  feet 
wide  by  thirty-two  in  length,  planted  in  rows,  two  feet  dis- 
tant, half  a peck.  For  field  cultivation^  English  writers  say 
that  it  requires  twenty  bushels  and  a half  to  plant  an  acre 
with  cut  potatoes ; and  thirty-seven  bushels  and  a quarter 
of  whole  potatoes. 

Soil. — “ The  soil,”  says  Loudon,  in  w^hich  the  potato 
thrives  best,  is  a light  loam,  neither  too  dry  nor  too  moist, 
but  if  rich,  so  much  the  better. — They  may,  however,  be 
grown  well  on  many  other  sorts  of  land,  especially  those  of 
the  mossy,  moory,  and  other  similar  kinds,  where  they  are 
free  from  stagnant  moisture.  The  best  flavoured  potatoes 
are  almost  always  produced  from  a newly  broken-up  pas- 
ture-ground, not  manured ; or  from  any  new  soil,  as  the 
site  of  a grubbed-up  copse  or  hedge,  or  the  site  of  old 
buildings  or  roads.  The  best  cliniate  for  the  potato  is  one 
rather  moist  than  dry,  and  temperate  or  cool  rather  than 
hot.  Hence  the  excellence  of  the  Irish  potatoes,  which 
grow  in  a dry,  loamy,  calcareous  soil,  and  moist  and  tem- 
perate climate  ; and  hence,  also,  the  inferiority  of  the  pota- 
toes of  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  even  Germany.  In  short, 
the  potato  is  grown  no  where  in  the  world  to  the  same  de- 
gree of  perfection  as  in  Ireland  and  Lancashire,  and  not 
even  in  the  south  of  England,  so  well  as  in  Scotland  and 
the  north  and  western  counties;  all  which  is,  in  our  opin- 
ion, clearly  attributable  to  the  climate.” 

Although  a light  loam  is  a proper  soil  for  the  potato  in  a 
cool  and  moist  climate,  a strong  and  heavy  loam  is  most  suit- 
able for  the  same  root  in  a dry  and  hot  climate.  In  a paper 
read  before  the  New  York  Horticultural  Society,  in  1823,  by 
Wm.  Wilson,  an  experienced  horticulturist,  are  the  following 
remarks  on  this  subject : — “ Those  soils  which  prove  the  very 
bane  of  the  potato  here  [in  the  United  States]  are  just  such 
as  prove  the  most  congenial  for  them  in  Britain.  And  so, 
on  the  contrary,  the  best  soils,  by  far,  for  producing  the 
driest  and  best  flavoured  potatoes  here,  and  altogether  the 
most  abundant  crops,  are  those  of  a strong,  heavy  loam.” 
These  assertions  are  corroborated  by  a number  of  experL 


POTATO. 


253 


ments,  mentioned  in  the  paper  from  which  they  are  ex- 
tracted. Mr.  Buel,  of  Albany,  likewise  asserts,  that  the 
best  potatoes  are  grown  upon  cold,  moist,  but  porous  and 
rich  soils.” — Anu  Farmer^  vol.  ix.  p.  409. 

Methods  of  planting. — These  are  various.  If  the  land  is 
rough,  hard,  or  stony,  the  common  mode  of  planting  in 
hills  is,  perhaps,  the  most  expedient  But,  if  it  be  some- 
what mellow,  drills  are  to  be  preferred.  Dr.  Cooper  says, 

If  your  soil  is  stiff  and  wet,  plough  it  in  ridges ; if  sandy 
and  dry,  plough  it  flat  Plough  it  deep.  Plant  your  sets 
in  drills  marked  out  by  the  plough  or  the  hoe.  The  plants 
should  be  dibbled  in,  six  inches  deep,  on  long  dung,  scat- 
tered not  sparingly  along  the  drills,  then  covered  with 
about  four  inches  of  mould. 

The  drills  should  be  in  threes  one  foot  apart ; 

the  plants  should  be  eight  inches  apart,  with  an  interval,  on 
each  side  of  each  set  of  three  drills,  of  two  feet,  which  will 
admit  of  horse-hoeing  between  the  sets  of  drills,  and  of 
hand-weeding  between  each  drill. 


(M 

- ' 

To  have  a good  crop,  you  must  not  spare  dung,  or  spare 
labour  in  weeding.  Some  persons  prefer  sets  of  four  o/ 
five  drills,  instead  of  three ; or,  where  horse-hoeing  is  no{ 
convenient,  the  intervals  may  be  reduced  to  one  foot  be- 
tween each  set  of  drills,  for  the  convenience  of  hand-weed- 
ing ; but,  upon  the  whole,  the  method  here  first  proposed  is 
as  good  as  any.  Forty  loads  of  dung  per  acre  will  pay  bet- 
ter than  a less  quantity. 

If  small  potatoes  are  wanted  for  feeding,  the  sets  maybe 
at  six  inches  apart,  and  the  rows  at  nine  inches ; but  the 
method  first  here  proposed  admits,  what  is  essential,  accu- 
rate weeding,  and  sufficient  air  to  circulate  between  the 
plants.” 

Deane  says,  the  sets  may  be  either  in  single  rows,  three 
feet,  or  double,  one  foot  apart,  and  from  seven  to  nine  inches 
asunder  in  the  rows. 

An  expeditious  way  of  planting  potatoes  is  as  follows 
After  the  ground  is  prepared,  by  ploughing  and  harrowing^ 
cut  furrows,  with  the  horse-plough,  forty  inches  apart;  drop 
the  sets  in  the  furrows ; then  pass  the  plough  along  the 
back  of  each  furrow,  which  will  throw  the  earth  of  both 
furrows  upon  the  sets ; and  afterwards  level  the  ground 
22 


2^4'  POTATO. 

mthiheibftick' or  with  *a^  harrow  that  ha»* 
shbrt  tiricfs ; but  it  i«  of  nb  great  consequence  whothet  it  be 
levelled  at «ill:  * Another  tnethod  of  planting  is-,  to  plpngh- 
the  ground  plain,  keeping  the  furrows  straight  arid  regular, » 
arid  drbp  Set^  in  ever)r  third  or  fourth  furrow.  But,  before 
this  is  doiie,  the^^ound  should  be  ploughed  and  made  level 
anid  fine  S?\^ith  the-harrbWi’’  » * • - j : .0^ 

A wrher  for  the  Ni  E.  Fctmety  vol;  ii.  * ps  33 1 y gives  the 
foilowiiig  as  easy*  and  cheap  method  ‘of  raismg  potatoes : 

On  an*  eyeri  abd  snmoth  ‘piece  of  mowing,  or  pasture- laridj 
iUakhide^p,  single  furrows'^- with  a plough,  at  three- feet  dis-' 
tince.  ’Fill  >thcfee'furro#s  wi&  any  other]  StraWy 

aild  dibp*  your  pofritoes^-six  or  eight  ineheS  apartj  oiT  the 
straw.  Then,  with  a hoe,  cover  the  potatoes  by  turning 
ddwn'the  ploughell  furrows  upon-  them.* - ^ They  will  require 
no  ihore  httentidri  till  they  are  grown.  NO  i h^ing  wifi  bO 
ifeees^ty.  .The  sanie  larid^  may  be  improved  as  a*pasture 
ftt  iheep,  ^ those  * animals  will  -not  eat,  nor  materially  -in^ 

jure,  the  tops  of  the  potatOesi^^'  * . . 4 ..i  i 

The  after-culture  of  potafoes;consists  in  harrowing,  hoe- 
ing, weeding,  and  earthing  up.  All  potatoes  require  to  be 
earthed  up  ; that  is,  to  have  at  least  one  inch  in  depth  of 
earth  heaped  on  their  roots,  and  extending  six  or  eight 
inehes* round* their  stem.  The  reason^  is,  that  the  tubers  do 
no ty-prbperly 'speaking^  grow  under  the  soily  but  rather  iow,  oi 
just  partially^  bedded  in  its  surface;  Potatoes  should,  gena« 
rally,  be  hoed  three  times,*'  though'  twice  will  do  in  ground 
ifot  infested  With  weeds.  The  last  hoeing  should  be  hn-f 
febed-  before  the  plants  arie  in-  blossom  ; otherwise  the  plants 
will  beiapt  to  form  a second  sOt  Of  roots,  which  will  not 
have  time  to  come  to  maturity,  but  will  rob  those  first 
fotmed  of  their  nourishment.  If  weeds  are  prevalent,  they 
should  be  cut  up  or  pulled  out,  but  the  plants  should  not  be 
earthed  up  in  that  stage  of  their  growths  Plaster  of  Paris, 
well  pulverized,  and  applied  to  the  leaves,  has  a beneficial 
effect  on  potatoes,  j.  , i j 

Pinching  off  the  blossoms.— It . is  now  generally  admitted, 
that  a*  certain*  advantage,  in  point  of  produce,  is  obtained  by 
pinching  off*  the  blossoms  as  they  appear  on  the  plants. : The 
fact  has  »been repeatedly  proved,  and  satisfactorily  accounted 
fer,*by  Enight,  who^  imagines  that  jit  will  add  an  ounce iiri 
weight  to ithe  tubers  of  e^h  plant,  or  considerably  above  a 
tcrii  per  acre.  > 

Gathermg  ^It  is  believed  that  cultivators  are  apt 

to  err  by  gathering  their  potatoes  too  early.  ^The  roots 


potAT6. 


tb'^i‘6w  ferger  aiid  betfci^  differ  lhb*‘tbp^ 
iained  their  Tall  Wtlj.  The*  Hbti:  O'.’  T^iskey  df  W 
ter,  in  an  address  td' 'the  Wbree'ster*  A^HbdltUrAl’SbMety, 
j^ays,  ‘‘  'Niitufe  ha:^  not’  its'  In^tutatibh^^at*'  the 

period  when  rite’  vides  ftirttief'belleve^'lt 

be  ripel  ^ It  seeniS' ptabable  that  the  'eai-th*  by  sblti^ ‘\m- 
kiidwri  process j j|)erfeets  its 'qUalitiefe  after^ti/a^  attained 
grd\Vdi.  'ttl dt  potateefe,'  whitH  have  ' ifeniailled  tWe  Whoie 
Iseasoli  iii ' the  dat’th  aVe  m6re  ftitih aeeoaa,* ' ha!^  ’ been-  ’ hfcet- 
taiiieh.  , it  fhay  fee*  i^ated/  as  a*  gettferal:  ’ttiie,'  ’ thW  potatfofes 
‘‘4u^e<id  b’est  wheh’plabte^  ektiy  a^tiH  dug'  fatd.”  JBiit  5t'1s 
ihost  advisable*  to'  hatve^t  ^theW  '"befotd  • the  * "<^eut^dee^  df 
• those  ’soakifeg  talttg,  ‘\\diich’  generally  ^fdeede'lhe  Vbtthtg'fli 
b'^  wiflieri ' ^ *♦  iu\ 

A mode  of  taking  part  of  a crop  is  mentt6ti‘ed"*-i^^^flav- 
4i'ng'  dsefer^aindd‘*thal'  -^bttie'  6f  tbe  ^ihbfets'  have’  littaitf^d  an 

eatalile  size,"  * ge  klung^  the  TOW’S j*  atid  ido^eti  thb’  'eaith*ubb^t 
each’  plattt  ynth ‘ a blunt  '^tick,  taking  - tWb  UP *’<hree  ^df ‘the 
Jkrgkst  tubeta’  frobi ' each,  ahd  tetutirfug  the  earth^  caifeftillj^)” 
^ Thd  hibst  e!s:petittieuS  Wa^  df  gath^ing'  pdtatb ' etfefp 'is, 
'first  f6‘VUh‘furrdWk''oti’eaCh  side  of  the’ 'roWii  arid 
deep  orie  ln  thb  tniddle/' w turns ' up  feaeyt  o^ ’the*  touts 
to'  the  sutikce,  fot’  the  jHirpbse*  df  pld^ing'  uphy 
this  wayj  hdweyer,  we'shohl^  some  wa,yte^*^khd 

should  udt  kdviSe  i^,  except  Where'  potaidei’at^  plenty,^ 'atid 
labour  scared.  A hoe  with  pF6ngs;‘  such  ‘is  Is  soM‘dt*  R. 
Newell’s  Agricultural" Estabiishhient,  No;  5^  NoHh  Matket 
street,  Boston, ’is^  p'fobahl^,  the  Best  iuiblement'iy?  gather- 
ing potatoes.'''''  t v..li 

SecurihQ^  tM  drx^p,-^yLf: Buhl;*^6f  Albany^  says,'^^T 
ire  manyerrondOUS  ndtidns,^‘iri  tdgatd  td^therctytttfe  ^d 
treatnient  of  thfe  potato,  which'  evety  Hass*  iff  society*  hkte 
"an  intetestiu  ekploihig',  ^ the  root hiS  beddme  a rieceska- 
ty  food  for  ev’ery  fimil}^  ’^'  Tbesh  'etrors'edte  id  supposing 
ist.‘  That  potatoes'  shouM  be’ gf(^  dry,‘'warnl  Sd9. 
2d.  That’thW  should  be ’ dried  iff  the'^nj ‘dr  'Hvafehd^,'^o 
rbnder  them  plea  the  eye:  i %d;  T?hat'tHey  should’ve 

kept  warm  an’d  dry  during  winter,  To  St  tHern'Tor^eul^py 
uses.  ^ 4th!  That  they  'should  be  df  lar^d  ‘ske;^”  "’in.*coft- 
iradiction  tbUheie  pOpiilaP  bpitiidns^  hd  afesOrts,  ^i^Wj’that 
the  best'  potatoes  ’ arh'  groum'  upbtt  cold,'  * ttibist,'  hut*  *]^ordAs 
ihd'rich’ solM  4 it  were  betler  the '’shn^ never 

^hpuVd  shine  upon  them— thit ' fhey  shouldibe  housed  'Vrith 
all  the  dirt  that  ddheres  mHhem— thatitis'  beiiefieikl‘¥d^udd 
"’nibre  di#t  ih  the  bin  or  cask,To  exfclud^**exlerr^i 


256 


TOTAZX 


much  as  possible.  And,  thirds  that  thei^  ii'jrface  should  be 
kept  moist,  and  the  atmosphere,  which  surrounds,  as  little 
above  the  point  of  freezing  as  possible.” 

Potatoes  may  be  kept  during  winter  in  a cellar,  free  from 
frost,  or  in  pits  or  caves  in  the  field.  In  the  latter  case,  they 
must  be  so  situated  on  a dry  knoll,  or  the  side  of  a hill,  as 
to  be  secured  from  the  possibility  of  the  pits  being  pervaded 
by  water  j and  they  must  be  so  covered,  first  with  straw 
and  then  with  loam,  as  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  frost. 
They  may,  likewise,  be  placed  in  barrels,  casks,  or  boxes, 
and  if  packed  in  moist  sand,  or  the  loam  of  the  field  in 
which  they  grew,  they  will  be  preserved  better  than  in  al- 
most any  other  situation.  If  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun 
and  air  till  the  upper  side  acquires  a green  colour,  they  be- 
^.ome  poisonous. 

Use. — The  use  of  the  potato,  as  an  article  of  diet  both 
for  man  and  beast,  is,  probably,  more  extensive,  and  more 
common,  than  that  of  any  other  vegetable  production. 
Prom  having  no  peculiarity  of  taste,  and  consisting  chiefly 
of  starch,  it  approaches  near  to  the  qualities  of  the  flour  of 
grain  ; ‘‘  and  for  this  reason,”  says  Loudon,  ‘‘  it  is  the  most 
universally  liked,  and  can  be  used  longer  in  constant  suc- 
cession by  the  same  individual  without  becoming  unpalat- 
able, than  any  other  vegetable,  the  seeds  of  grasses  ex- 
cepted.” Neill  observes,  so  generally  is  it  relished,  and 
so  nutritious  is  it  accounted,  that,  on  many  tables,  it  now 
appears  almost  every  day  in  the  year.” 

An  Essay  on  the  Solarium  Tuberosum^  by  H.  C.  Wor- 
snam,  from  the  Philadelphia  Journal  of  the  Medical  and 
Physical  Sciences^  gives  the  following  summary  view  of  the 
excellent  qualities  of  this  superlative  root  : — “ Having  its 
origin  in  a warm  climate,  it  was  supposed  to  be  intolerant 
of  cold,  and  upon  that  account  incapable  of  cultivation  in  a 
more  northern  clime.  But  experience  has  shown  the  con- 
trary, and  the  potato  is  naturalized  almost  in  every  region. 
With  the  lower  classes  of  people,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest 
blessings  which  the  soil  produces,  forming  ‘ flour  without  a 
mill,  and  bread  without  an  oven  and,  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  an  agreeable,  wholesome  dish,  without  expensive 
condiments.  What  resources  does  the  potato  present  to  us  ? 
Its  stalk,  considered  as  a textile  plant,  furnishes  in  Austria 
a sort  of  flax — when  burned,  it  yields  much  potash — its  ap- 
ples, when  ripe  and  crushed,  ferment,  and  give  spirits  by 
distillation — its  tubercles,  made  into  a pulp,  are  a substitute 
•or  soap,  in  bleaching.  Cooked  by  steam,  the  potato  is  a 


’PHU'NlNe. 


^^67 


most  healthy  food.  >By  different  'manipulation.V*H*fifrhisBes 
two  kinds  of  dour,  a gritel  and  a puredfchyraa,  WWdf ‘m'ay 
t-be  applied  to  increase  the  bulk  of  brt^a'd  made  frOhi^rain. 
Treated  chymically,  it  is  convened*  ’into  ' beer^  ’Vifaegkr, 
spirits,  &c;’?  ' ‘ ' ■ *»  * ‘ 

PliUN IN G*— In  pruning  the’  apjile»tlde  and  all  bther 
standard  trees,  the  points  of  the  external  brafh^hiefs  should 
be  every  where  ’ rendered  ’thin  eind  pervious  to  th^  * light ; 
so  that  the  iiitemal  par^  .1  of  ‘ the  tree  ? may  ^nbt  be^  wbo4fy 
shaded  by  the  external  parts.  The  light-  shbuld  "tl'  netmte 
deeply  • into  the  tree,  on  * every  side'; . btit  not  whete 
through  it.  When  the  pruner  has  judiciously  executed  hSs 
work,  every  part  of*  the  tree,  internal  as^  weH  eiternal, 
will  be  productive  of  fruit  ; and  the  intenlah  pdrt, -iti' •unfa- 
vourable seasons,  will  rather  receive  protection  than  injriY 
from  the  external.  • A trOe,*  thus  pruhed,  d^ilhnbt  dnly^pr^^- 
duce  much  more  fruit,  but  will  alsO  be  able  ' to  sup^H  a 
heavier  load  of  it,  without  danger  of  being  broken ; fbr^any 
given  weight  will  depress  the  branch,  not  simply  in  ptbpbt- 
tion  to  dts^^quantity;  and  its  ho rii;Oiital  ' distance  ftomn  the 
point  of  suspension,  by  a mode  of  actibn  similar  to  that  of 
the  weight  of  the  beam  of  the  steel^yard ; * and  hen>ce  a 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  suspended  at  (me^  fobt  distance 
from  the  Irunk^  will  distress  the  branch,  which  supports  it, 
no  more -than  ten  pounds  at  fifteen  feet  distance  ivouldtdo 
,Every  tree  will,  therefore^  support  a larger  Iveight  of*  fruit, 
without  danger  of  being  broken,  iii  proportion  ^as  lhe'^ pails 
of  such  weight  are  made  to  approach  nearer  tb  its  trifle. 

, ‘lEaeh  variety  of  the  apple-tree  has  its  Own^  peelillar 
form  of  growth  ; and 'this  it  will  ultimately  assume^ 
considerable  degree,  in  defiance  of  the  art  of  the  prune?. 
Something  may  nevertheless  be  done  to  correct  whatever 
is  defective.  W growth  of  any  variety  is' weak 

and  reclining,  the  principal  stem  should  be  trained  to  a 
considerable  height,  before  it  be  allowed  to  produce  branch- 
es ; and  if  any  of  these  take  a horizontal  or  pendeUt  'direO- 
tion,  they  should  be  regularly  taken  off*  »^  ^Onet  principal 
leading  stem  should  be  encouraged  almost  to  the  siimmitof 
the  tree,  to  prevent  a sudden  division  into- two  large  botighs 
of  nearly,  equal  strength ; for  the  fork  which 'these  form  % 
apt  to  divide  and  break,  when  the  branches  are  loaded  wMi 
fruit.  All  efforts  to  give  young  trees  a round  and  regularly 
spreading  form,  whilst  in  the  nursery,  will  be  foUnff  injuri- 
ous in  the  future  stages  of  their- growth*  Large  branches 
22* 


268 


PUMPKIN. 


should  rarely  or  never  be  amputated.” — Knighth  Treatise 
on  the  Culture  of  the  Apple  and  Pear. 

“ Hitt  recommends  that  the  shape  or  figure  of  standards 
should  be  conical,  like  the  natural  growth  of  the  fir-tree ; 
and  this  form,  or  the  pyramidal  or  sub-cylindrical,  is  deci- 
dedly preferred  by  the  French,  and  universally  employed 
by  the  Dutch. 

The  season  for  pruning. — For  all  the  operations  of 
pruning,  which  are  performed  on  the  branches  or  shoots  of 
trees,  it  would  appear  the  period  immediately  before,  or 
•ommensurate  with,  the  rising  of  the  sap,  is  the  best*” — 
Loudon. 

‘‘  My  practice  has  been  to  prune  in  the  spring,  beginning 
when  the  buds  have  scarcely  begun  to  swell,  and  ending 
before  the  expansion  of  the  leaves.  But  I never  leave 
‘ stumps’  of  limbs.  Every  branch,  that  is  taken  away,  is 
cut  close  and  even  with  the  stem  or  limb  where  it  grew ; 
and  the  healing  of  the  wound  commences  and  proceeds 
kindly  as  vegetation  advances.  If  the  branch  cut  off  be 
large,  the  wound  should  be  covered  with  some  kind  of  plas- 
ter.”*— Col.  Pickering. 

If,  however,  pruning  is  commenced  at  a proper  stage  of 
the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  properly  and  seasonably  attend- 
ed to,  it  w ill  rarely  be  necessary  to  take  off  a large  limb, 
and  small  ones,  if  cut  close  and  smooth,  may  be  taken  ofl‘ 
any  season.  See  remarks  on  pruning  trees  by  a writer  foi 
. the  N.  E.  Farmery  vol.  iii.  p.  273. 

PUMPKIN. — Cucurhita  pepo. — The  pumpkin  is  a native 
of  India.  Loudon  says  there  are  six  species  in  cultivation, 
but  gives  no  description  of  them.  Russell’s  Catalogue  enu- 
merates the  following  varieties : 


Finest  yellow  family  pumpkin, 
Connecticut  field, 

Large  cheese, 


Mammoth,  {which  have  grown 
to  226  Ihs.  weight,) 

Seven  years,  (afne  sort  to  keep.) 


Pumpkins  will  grow  on  any  kind  of  soil,  which  is  proper 
for  head-crops,  but  the  land  cannot  be  made  too  rich  for 
them.  The  Farmers  Assistant  thinks  they  will  grow  better, 
when  planted  by  themselves,  than  when  raised,  as  usual, 
with  Indian  corn.  “ The  hills,  in  such  case,  should  stand 
about  seven  feet  apart  each  way,  and  a number  of  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  each  hill,  to  make  allowance  for  what 
may  be  destroyed  by  insects.  It  will  be  well,  however,  to 
protect  them  by  frames,  covered  by  gauze,  as  directed, 
p.  91,  under  the  article  Cucumber. 


QUINCE. 


251) 


Preservation, — Pumpkins  may  be  kept  in  a cellar,  for 
this  purpose,  a considerable  part  of  the  winter;  but  the 
cellar  must  not  be  too  warm  ; and  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  break  off  the  stems,  but  leave  these  attached  to  them ; 
otherwise  they  will  soon  commence  rotting,  at  the  places 
where  the  stems  were  broken  off. — Farmer^s  Assistant, 
They  may  likewise  be  preserved  in  mows  of  hay  or  straw, 
or  in  any  dry  situation,  in  which  they  are  secure  from  frost. 

Use, — Loudon  says  of  the  pumpkin,  “ Though  common- 
ly cultivated  in  gardens  for  curiosity,  yet,  in  some  of  the 
country  villages  in  England,  the  inhabitants  grow  it  on 
dunghills,  at  the  backs  of  their  houses,  and  train  the  shoots 
to  a great  length  over  grass.  When  the  fruit  is  ripe,  they 
cut  a hole  in  one  side,  and,  having  taken  out  the  seeds,  fill 
the  void  space  with  sliced  apples,  adding  a little  sugar  and 
spice,  and  then,  having  baked  the  whole,  eat  it  with 
butter. — Neill,  Pumpkin-pie,  Abercrombie  says,  is  very 
common  [in  Great  Britain,  and  proverbially  so  in  New 
England.]  On  the  continent  the  fruit  is  a good  deal  used 
in  soups,  and  also  stewed  and  fried  in  oil  and  butter.”  Its 
culinary  uses  in  the  United  States  are  too  well  known  to 
need  description  ; but  some  may  not  be  aware  that  ‘‘  Pump- 
kins are  excellent  for  fatting  horses.  They,  however,  do 
not  relish  them  at  first ; and  therefore  must  be  kept  from 
feeding  till  they  are  hungry,  before  the  pumpkins  are  offer- 
ed to  them,  and  let  a little  salt  be  first  sprinkled  on  this 
food ; when  they  will  soon  grow  fond  of  it,  and  eat  it 
readily  without  salt.” 

QUINCE. — Pyrus  cydonia, — The  quince  is  a native  of 
the  southern  and  eastern  parts  of  Europe. 

Varieties, — Miller  enumerates — 


The  oblong’;  or  pear-quince,  with 
oblonff  ovate  leaves,  and  an  ob- 
long ™t,  lengthened  at  the  base. 

The  apple-quince,  with  ovate  leaves, 
and  a rounder  fruit. 

The  Portugal  quince,  with  ovate 
leaves,  and  an  oblong  fruit,  which 
is  more  juicy,  and  less  harsh  than 


the  others,  and  therefore  the  most 
valuable.  It  is  rather  a shy  bearer, 
but  is  highly  esteemed  for  marma- 
lade, as  the  pulp  has  the  property  of 
assuming  a fine  purple  tint  in  tlie 
course  of  being  prepared. 

The  mild  and  eatable  quince,  less  aus- 
tere and  astringent  than  the  others. 


“ Propagation, — Generally  by  layers,  but  also  by  cut- 
tings ; and  approved  sorts  may  be  perpetuated  by  grafting. 
In  propagating  for  stocks,  nothing  more  is  necessary  than 
to  remove  the  lower  shoots  from  the  larger,  so  as  to  pre- 
serve a clean  stem  as  high  as  the  graft ; but  for  fruit-bearing 
trees,  it  is  necessary  to  train  the  tree  to  a rod,  till  it  has 
attained  four  or  five  feet  in  height,  and  can  support  itself 


260 


RADISH. 


upright  It  seldom  planted  bl^t  as  a Standard  in  th^^  or^ 
chard,  and  a very  few  trees  arfe  sufficient  for  a family. 

“ The  time  of  planting,  the  mode  nf  bearing,'  and  all'^e 
other  particulars  of  culture,  are' the  same  as’ for  the  aj)ple 
and  pear.”- — Loudon^  ^ li:  ' 

“ The  stem  of  the  quince  is  employed  for  the  reception 
of  apple  and  pear  grafts,  and  has  the  property  of  giv’iig 
to  the  fruit  it  bears  greater  precocity,  an  increased  size,  and 
improved  flavour ; but  with  this  drawback^  that  i^he  quan- 
tity is  small,  and  the  product  short-lived,  as  the  age  of  the 
tree  seldom  exceeds  ten  or  twelve  years. ^ The  .quince- 
tree  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  wOrm?  called  the  borer, 
the  same  as  the  apple-tree  and  the  pear-tree,  and  the  same 
remedies  are  recommended.  • • ' Ji  ‘ 


Ikcn — “'The  fruit  is  not  eaten  raw ; but,  stewed,  or 
pies  or ' tarts,  along  with  apples,  is  much  esteemedi  ' In 
confectionary  it  forms  an  excellent  marmalade  and  syrup. 
When  apples  ate  flat,  and  have  lost  their  flavour,  Forsyth 
observes,  a quince  of  two,  in  a pie  or  pudding,  jwill  add^a 
quickness  to  them.  In  medicine,  the  express^  juice,  re- 
peatedly taken  in  small  quantities^  iS  said  to  be  cooling, 
astringent  and  stomachic.  A mucilage  prepared  from  the 
seeds  was  formerly  much  in  use,  but  is  now  supplanted  ‘by 
the  simple  gums.” — Lovdon*  “This  fruit  is  generally  boil- 
ed and  eaten  with  sugar,  in  which  fofm  it  maybe  usefully 
employed  in  cases  of  dysentery.  Five  gallons  of  Ae  juice 
of  quiuces,  mixed  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  sugar, ^ airf 
fermented,  affords  a delicious  wine.  By  boiling  the  kernels 
of  quinces  in  water,  a mucilage  is  extracted,  whkhils  often 
used  in  medicine  as  a-  substitute  for  that  of  gum  Arabic. 
Quinces  are  excellent  in  apple-pies,  in  the  proportfon  of 
one  fourth  quince  to  three  fourths  apple,  with  some  thin 
slices  of  candied  lemon-peel  or  citron.”— 

RADISH. — Raphanus  sativiLs^^The  garden-radish  is^a 
native  of  China,  and  introduced  into  England  in  1584.  , 
Varieties,— Mr.  Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  follow- 
ing :— 

Long  salmon, 


Early  short-itop  scarlet,  {a  superi- 
or sortf)  : , , . 

Early  frame. 

Long  white  summer,  or  Naples, 
Purple-short  top. 


Cherry,  or  -scarlet  tuniip-rooted,  . ^ 
White  turnip-rooteidj  ' ' 

Viojet-coloured  lumip^rooled)  •.  ^ * I 


iip^n 

' Black  fall,, or  Spanisfi. 
Propagation,— varieties  are  raised  from  jseed. 

Soil  cmd  situation, — The  soil  should  be  light  and  »mellow 
well  broken  by  digging.  A scattering  of  the  smaller  grow- 


RADISH. 


261 


mg  sorts  may  be  sown  among  some  broad-cast  crops  of 
larger  growth,  such  as  spinage,  lettuce  and  onion ; it  may 
also  be  drilled  between  wide  rows  of  beans,  or  on  ground 
intended  to  be  sown  with  a late  spring  crop. 

Times  of  sowing, — To  have  a constar»t  succession  of 
radishes  at  table,  the  seeds  should  be  sowoU  once  a fort- 
night, from  April  [or  the  last  of  March]  to  August.  But 
in  midsummer  they  sooner  grow  sticky  and  strong,  than  in 
spring  or  fall.  They  must  therefore  be  eaten  while  they 
are  young.  I have  had  better  success  with  those  sown  in 
August  than  in  any  other  month.’’ — Deane, 

Seed,  process  in  sowing,  and  common  culture, — “ Sow  each 
sort  separately ; and  for  a bed  four  feet  six  inches  by  twelve 
feet,  two  ounces  of  seed  will  be  required  of  the  spring 
sorts,  and  an  ounce  and  a half  for  the  autumn  varieties. 
All  the  kinds  may  be  sown  either  broad-cast  or  in  drills  ; 
but  the  latter  is  preferable,  as  allowing  the  roots  to  be  drawn 
regularly,  with  less  waste.  If  you  sow  broad-cast,  it  is  a 
good  method  to  make  beds  four  or  five  feet  wide,  with  al- 
leys between,  a foot  wide,  the  -earth  of  which  may  be  used 
to  raise  the  beds,  or  not,  as  the  season  may  make  it  desira- 
ble to  keep  the  beds  dry  or  moist.  Avoid  sowing  exces- 
sively thick,  as  it  tends  to  make  the  tops  run,  and  the  roots 
stringy.  Rake  in  the  seed  well,  full  half  an  inch  deep, 
leaving  none  on  the  surface  to  attract  birds.  If  you  trace 
drills,  let  them  be,  for  the  spindle-rooted  kinds,  half  an  inch 
deep,  and  about  two  inches  and  a half  asunder ; for  the 
small  turnip-rooted,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  deep,  and  four 
or  five  inches  asunder ; and  for  the  black  turnip  or  Spanish, 
six  or  eight  inches  asunder,  because  the  root  grows  to  the 
size  of  a middle-sized  turnip.  As  the  plants  advance  in 
growth,  thin  them  so  as  to  leave  the  spindle-rooted  about 
two  inches  square  distance,  and  the  other  sorts  three,  four, 
or  five,  leaving  the  most  space  to  the  respective  sorts  in 
free,  growing  weather.  In  dry,  warm  weather,  water  pretty 
frequently  : this  swells  the  roots,  and  makes  them  mild  and 
crisp.  ” — Abercrombie, 

‘‘  This  root  being  liable  to  be  eaten  by  worms,  the  fol- 
lowing method  is  recommended  for  raising  them  : — Take 
equal  quantities  of  buck-wheat  bran,  and  fresh  horse-dung, 
and  mix  them  well  and  plentifully  in  the  ground  by  dig- 
ging. Suddenly  after  this  a great  fermentation  will  be 
produced,  and  numbers  of  toad-stools  will  start  up  in  forty- 
eight  hours.  Dig  the  ground  over  again,  and  sow  the  seed, 
and  the  radishes  will  grow  with  great  rapidity,  and  be  free 


262 


RHUBAEB. 


from  the  attacks  of  insects.  Bucl#^ wheat  briaia  is  an*  eKC§l^ 
lent  manure  of  itself. 

^ Formerly  thie  leaves  vt^ere  often  boiled  and  eateuij^ 

but  now  the  roots  are  chiefly *einpl6yed-  Thede  are  ^eatea 
raw  in  spring,  suiiimer,  autumh,  and  winter;  The  young 
seedling  leaves  are  often  ufeed  with  ^cresses'  and  toinsr^ 
tafd,  as*  small  salad  and  tadish^sbed  pods,' ^when -of  )pliimp 
growth,  but  stilhyoun^  and  green,  are  used  )to  increase  the 
variety  of  vegetable  pickles,  ahd' are  considered  a tol^rablji^ 
substitute  for  Papers. f-^4  . 

‘‘Radishes  are  esteemed  aperient,  attenuating  and  an ti^ 
scorbutic : when  baten  in  mdderate  quantitiesy  they  are  in 
a certdih  ’medsure  salubi’iou^  to  persons  of : strong  Jiahtts| 
but  are,  ih  ^endrary  apt  to  ^i^duc6  a considerable  degree^fi 
flatulency  in  those  whose  ^stonofachs^  are  relaxed.*  r No  rad? 
ishes|  howevef,  ought  tb  he^eaten  when  oZd^-oi^after  having 
been ' kept  Some  tiihe^  as  they  are  then  utterly  indigestibloj 
and  render  the  breath  very  offensive;— Dorn. 

Dr.  Cvjoper  observes  that ‘‘^Radishes  oughts  to^  ibe.  $ow| 
in  rich  ground,  aid  careffully  tendeflj  so  as^to  grow  quickly  r 
if  not,  they^  ate  become  stringy,  in  which  Estate-!  they. -are 
very  unwholesohie  and  indigestible.’^  - . j . ,4 

iyeed.—‘‘ Radishes  that' are  for  seed  require  niueh  foom^ 
as  they  grow  to^  k Ikrge^si^b;  For  tbis^putpoSe  ^Som^  of  the 
most  th'Tifiy  ones  ’ should' be  left  standing*  ; or  else-bo  ti'am^ 
planted  to  a {flacd  Where  ekeh  shall  have  afe  muCh^Tbom;  as 
nearly  a yard  square: ' The  ripeness  of  the  seed  ds  knowfn 
by  the  pods  turning  bro wn J ^ ’For  this  ^purposf^  the  ‘.seeds 
ihust  be  sowii  early  ih  the  springs  because  they  tipen  slow- 
ly.’’-— 2>eawe;  ^ .,.4  ij;.-,:..*  ,,, 

Fdr  forcing  fadiskes'^  hot-bedsy  and  ■ culture^'  proper  for  hot- 
bed p'roductiohsj  should  be  resorted  to.-  See^jEJneye.  of 
Gari  p/Sm:  -M  r....  -J-.:  ...4 

RHUBARB.— jRMum.— There'  are  three  species -ofp  this 
plant  irt'etiltivation— the  R.  rhaphnticuMj  ^ native  o£i  Asi^  ; 
jR.  Ay6Hdw>7i,  klso’a  native  of  Asi^^^  aUd  R,  pulmqium^  ^ 
tiye  of  Tartary,  distinguished  by  its  elegant  pahtiatc  leaves, 
and  considered  as  the  true  Turkey  or  Russia  rhubarb.  ’ 

^ Propd'gddbn  emd  cnl^  the  sUrts  may  be  raised 

either  frohr ' scdd  or  by  dividing  the  roOts.  If  frqmi  sqed, 
which  il  the  best  iU ode, ; sbw  in  light,  deep  earthy  in:  spring ; 
and  the  plants,  if  kept  eight  or  nine  inches  asunder,  wilbh^ 
fit  for  transplariting  in  autumn’’  and  for  the  next  spring. 
When  the  roots  are  divided,* care  must  be  taken  to  retaiu  a 
bud  bn  the  Crown  of  each  section ^they-may  be  pUft^tcd 


RHUBARB. 


263 


where  they  are  finally  to  remain^.  When  a plantation  is  to 
be  madeiy  the  ground,  which  should  be  light  ‘ and  rather 
sa,ndy,  but  well  manured,  should  be  trenched  three  spits,  or 
asi  deep  as  the  sub-«oil  will  admit,  adding  a manuring  of 
well  rotted  hotrbed  dung.  Then  plant  in  rows,  three  feet 
wide  by  two  feet,  in  the  rows  for  the  R.  rkaponticmn  and 
matmriy  dind  five  feet  by  three  feet  in*  the  rows  for  the 
A .No  other  culture  is ‘required  than  keeping 

the  ground  free  of  weeds,  occasionally  stirring  it,  during 
summer,  with  a three^ronged  fork,  and  adding  a dressing 
of  i welLrotted  manure  every  autumn  or  spring,  stirring  the 
ground  asrdeep  as  possible.  Some  never  allow  the  flower- 
stalks  ito  produce  flowers  ; vanfl  others  cut  them  over  as 
soon  as  they  , have  done » flowering,  to  prevent  the  plants 
fyom  ibejngr  exhausted  by  . the  production  of  seeds.  The 
former  seems  the  preferable  method,  as  the  flower-stalks  of 
plaints  cannot, j like  the  leav^,  be  considered  as  preparing 
a reserve  of  nourishment  for  the  roots. 

. , Blanching The  advantages  of  blanching  the  stalks  of 
rhubarb,  for  culinary  purposes have  been  pointed  out  by 
Tram  vol.-iL  ^ These  are  two-fold, 
namely, ithe  desirable  qualities  of  improved  appearance  and 
flavour,  and  a. saving  in  the  quantity  of  sugar  necessary  to 
reader  it  .agreeable  to  the  palate,i  since  the  leaf-stalks,  when 
blanchedi,  are  infinitely  less  harsh  than  those  grown  under 
the  full  influence  of  lights  in  an  open  situation.^  It  may 
either  be:  blanched^  by  earthing  up  the  roots  early  in  spring, 
or i earthen  pots  may.  be  used,  as  in  blanching  sea^kale. 
^.Taking  Remove  a little  earth,  and,  bending 

down;  the.  leaf  you  would  remove,  slip  it  off*  from  the 
crown  without  breaking^  or  using  the  knife.  The  stalks 
are  fit  to  use,  when  the  leaf  is  half  expanded  5 but  a larger 
produce  is  obtained  by  letting  them  remain  till  in  full  ex- 
pansion, . as . is  practised  by  the  market-gardeners.  The 
sta^  are.  tied,  in  bundles  of  a dozen  and  upwards,  and  thus 
^posed  for  sale. 

4...  Zb  save  seedLrr—^^  Leave  one  or  two  of  the  strongest 
flowerrstalks  tO‘ perfect  their  seeds,  which  they  will  do  in 
July  and  August. 

Use, — “ The  two  first  species  are  cultivated  entirely,  and 
the  third,  in  gardens,  principally,  for  the  petioles  of  the  root- 
leaves,  which  are  peeled,  cut  down,  and  formed  into  tarts 
and  pies  in;  the  manner  of  apples  and  gooseberries.  The 
R,.hybridwn  affords  the  most  abundant  and  succulent  supply 
for  this  purpose. 


264 


ROLLER.  -ROSE. ROSEMARY. 


ROLLER. — This  is  a heavy  cylindrical  instrument,  to 
pass  over  lands,  render  them  more  compact,  and  answ^er 
other  useful  purposes  in  field  husbandry  and  gardening. 
Many  of  the  complaints  we  hear,  of  seeds  not  growing, 
arise  from  their  not  being  rolled.  Many  seeds  will  not 
vegetate  at  all,  and  many  others  will  vegetate  slowly, 
feebly,  and  unequally,  if  the  ground  be  not  rolled  soon  after 
the  seed  is  sown.  “ Those  rollers  which  are  cut  out  of 
free-stone,  being  heavier  than  wooden  ones,  are  best  to 
smooth  and  harden  the  alleys  in  gardens.  But  wooden 
ones  answer  better  in  tillage,  when  they  are  sufficiently 
large.  A roller  for  field-husbandry  should  be  five  or  six 
feet  long  f so  that  it  may  perform  much  in  a short  time, 
being  drawn  by  a horse  or  yoke  of  oxen,  for  either  of  which 
it  may  be  easily  harnessed.  It  should  be  made  perfectly 
round  and  smooth,  that  it  may  be  drawn  the  more  easily, 
and  press  the  ground  more  equally  in  all  parts.  And  it 
should  be  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  diameter. 
Being  large,  the  pressure  will  be  greater,  and  the  surface 
will  be  the  more  level.” — Deane. 

Where  there  is  no  roller  on  the  premises,  the  following 
is  recommended  as  a substitute : — After  the  seed  is  sown, 
and  the  ground  well  raked,  take  a board  or  boards,  of  the 
whole  length  of  the  bed  ; lay  them  flat  on  the  ground  ; be- 
ginning at  one  edge  of  the  bed,  walk  the  whole  length  of 
the  board  ; this  will  press  the  soil  on  the  seed  ; then  shift 
the  board,  till  you  have  thus  gone  over  the  whole  bed ; and 
in  dry  weather,  cover  your  beds,  for  forty-eight  hours,  with 
boards  laid  flat  on  the  soil,  and  the  seeds  will  come  up  al- 
most immediately.  If  no  boards  are  at  hand,  tread  in  the 
seed  with  your  feet,  or  strike  on  the  bed  with  the  blade  of 
your  spade  or  shovel. 

ROSE. — -See  Flowers,  p.  125. 

ROwSEMARY. — Rosmarinus  officinalis. — The  rosemary 
is  a hardy  under-shrub,  a native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
It  is  ci,n  evergreen,  rising  sometimes  six  or  eight  feet  high, 
though  rarely.  The  leaves  are  sessile,  linear,  dark-green 
above,  and  grayish  or  whitish  underneath ; the  blossoms  are 
of  a pale  blue  colour.  The  whole  plant  is  highly  aromatic. 

Varieties. — These  are. 

The  green,  or  common,  | The  godd-striped,  | The  silver-striped. 

Culture. — The  green  is  hardiest  as  a plant,  and  is  the 
rt  generally  used.  The  finest  plants  are  raised  from  seed, 
sov^m  either  broad-cast  or  in  drills,  six  inches  apart.  This 
plant  is  also  propagated  by  cuttings  and  suckers.  ‘‘  Planted 


RUE. SAGE. 


265 


in  the  month  of  March,  six  inches  apart,  and  inserted  two 
thirds  of  their  length  in  the  ground,  they  will  take  root 
freely,  and,  by  the  month  of  September,  be  fit  for  trans- 
planting wherever  destined  to  remain.” — McMahon. 

RUE. — Ruta  gravcolens, — This  is  an  under-shrub,  an 
evergreen,  which  prefers  a light  soil,  and  is  easily  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  or  seeds.  Mr.  Armstrong  says,  “ its 
beauty  is  much  increased  by  lopping  the  branches  close  to 
the  earth  every  fourth  year.” 

Use, — Boerhaave  recommends  the  leaves  of  rue  as  of 
great  service  to  persons  of  cold,  phlegmatic  habits ; as  they 
quicken  the  circulation,  dissolve  viscid  or  tenacious  juices, 
remove  obstructions,  and  promote  the  fluid  secretions.  Mr. 
Wilson,  in  his  Economy  of  the  Kitchen  Garden^  says,  ^‘The 
most  effectual  remedy  for  expelling  worms,  that  has  ever 
coiiie  under  my  observation,  was  effected  by  an  infusion  of 
the  tops  of  rue,  given  in  gin  to  the  patient,  in  the  morning, 
fasting.” 

SAGE. — Salvia  officinalis, — Sage  is  a native  of  the  south 
of  Europe.  Its  varieties  are. 

The  red,  The  small-leaved  green,  or  sage 

The  broad-leaved,  or  balsamic,  of  virtue. 

The  green. 

Estimate  of  sorts, — The  red  is  the  principal  sort  in  culi- 
nary use,  having  the  most  agreeable" and  the  fullest  flavour; 
the  green  is  next  in  estimation  with  the  cook ; but  the 
small-leaved  is  generally  preferred  to  those  to  eat  as  a raw 
herb,  and  for  decoctions  ; while  the  broad-leaved,  balsamic 
species  is  the  most  efficacious  in  a medical  way,  and  is  also 
a tea-herb.  However,  any  of  the  sorts  may  be  occasionally 
used  for  these  alternate  purposes. 

Culture, — They  are  all  propagated  alike,  by  seeds  or 
suckers,  and  by  portions  of  old  roots,  and  grow  well  in  any 
soil  not  positively  wet.  Till  three  or  four  years  old,  they 
have  a healthy  and  agreeable  appearance,  forming  full  and 
regular  tufts ; but,  after  this  period,  they  lose  the  central 
branches,  and  even  become  ragged  and  broken  at  the 
edges.  The  treatment  already  suggested  for  rue  might  be 
useful  for  sage.  Under  it,  the  roots  would  probably  renew 
their  vigour,  and  throw  out  new  and  healthy  shoots ; but 
of  this  theory  we  have  no  experience.” — Armstrong, 

Use, — “ The  leaves  are  used  in  stuffings  and  sauces,  for 
many  kinds  of  luscious  and  strong  meats,  as  well  as  to  im- 
prove the  flavour  of  various  articles  of  cookery.  The  de- 
23 


2G6 


SALSIFY. SAVORY. 


coction  called  sage-tea  is  usually  made  from  one  variety, 
the  small-leaved  green,  or  sage  of  virtue ; but  any  of  the 
others  are  equally  lit  for  this  purpose.” — Loudon. 

SALSIFY,  or  OYSTER  PLANT. — Tragopogon  porri- 
folius. — The  salsify  is  a hardy  biennial,  a native  of  Eng- 
land. The  root  is  long  and  tapering,  of  a fleshy  white  sub- 
stance ; the  herb  smooth,  glaucous,  and  rising  three  or  four 
feet  high.  The  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  leek;  the 
flowers  are  of  a dull  purple  colour,  closing  soon  after  mid- 
day ; the  seed,  as  in  other  species  of  goat’s  beard,  is  re- 
markable for  having  attached  to  it  a broad  feathery  crown. 

Culture. — It  resembles  a small  parsnep  in  its  appearance. 
It  is  raised  annually  from  seeds,  and  as  easily,  requiring 
no  more  care  than  the  carrot.  It  bears  a tolerable  crop. 

Use. — In  this  country  it  is  parboiled,  and  then  fried 
either  in  batter  or  without.  It  forms  an  admirable  garnish 
for  boiled  fowls  or  tiirkies.  In  its  taste  it  so  strongly  re- 
sembles the  oyster,  that,  when  sliced  and  fried  in  batter,  it 
can  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it.  If  our  gardeners 
would  introduce  it  into  the  market,  and  our  citizens  once 
try  it,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  its  ever  failing  hereafter 
to  be  raised.  It  is  in  eating  from  November  to  May,  pre- 
cisely the  period  in  which  our  vegetable  market  is  most 
deficient  in  variety.” — John  Lowell^  Esq.  in  Mass.  Agr.  Repos. 

The  stalks  of  the  tragopogon  may  be  cut  in  the  spring, 
when  they  are  four  or  five  inches  high,  and  dressed  like 
asparagus,  in  which  they  eat  very  tender  and  well.” — Rees*' 
Cyclopedia. 

SAVORY. — Satureja. — Two  species  of  this  plant  are 
cultivated — the  winter  and  summer  savory. 

Winter  savory  is  a hardy  under-shrub,  a native  of  the 
south  of  France  and  Italy.  The  shoots  are  furnished  with 
two  narrow,  stiff  leaves,  an  inch  long,  placed  opposite  at 
each  joint,  and  from  the  base  of  these  a few  small  leaves 
proceed  in  clusters.  It  produces  whitish  flowers  in  May 
and  June. 

Simmer  savory  is  a hardy  annual,  a native  of  Italy.  The 
branches  are  slender,  erect,  and  about  a foot  high  ; leaves 
opposite,  and  almost  an  inch  in  length.  It  flowers  in  June 
and  July. 

Culture. — Winter  savory  is  a perennial  plant,  and  is 
propagated  from  seeds  or  slips  ; summer  savory,  from  seeds 
only.  Both  sorts  will  grow  on  almost  any  soil,  and  it  is 
said  that  the  wunter  kind  grows  best  on  barren  soils. 


SEA-KALK. 


207 


Use, — ‘‘  Both  the  summer  and  winter  savory  have  long 
been  cultivated  for  culinary  and  medicinal  purposes.  Their 
warm,  aromatic,  pungent  leaves  are  much  esteemed  in  sal- 
ads : formerly,  they  were  employed  medicinally,  with  a 
view  to  attenuate  viscid  humours,  to  dispel  flatulency,  and 
to  increase  the  appetite.  According  to  Professor  Bradley, 
this  herb,  when  dry,  and  put  into  a bed,  possesses  the 
remarkable  property  of  expelling  fleas.” — I)om.  Encyc. 

SEA-KALE. — Cramba  maritima, — The  sea-kale  grows 
spontaneously  on  many  parts  of  the  sea-coast  of  Great  Britain. 
The  inhabitants  watch  v/hen  the  shoots  begin  to  push  up  the 
sand  and  gravel,  in  March  and  April,  when  they  cut  off  the 
young  shoots  and  leaf-stocks,  then  blanched  and  tender, 
and  boil  them  as  greens. 

Use, — ‘‘  The  young  spring  shoots,  and  the  stalks  of  the 
unfolding  leaves,  blanched  by  rising  through  the  natural 
ground  in  a wild  state,  or  by  earthing  up  in  gardens,  are 
the  parts  used ; and,  when  boiled,  and  dressed  like  aspara- 
gus, are  not  inferior  to  that  vegetable.  They  form  also  an 
excellent  ingredient  in  soups.  Sometimes  the  ribs  of  the 
large  leaves  me  peeled  and  dressed  as  asparagus,  after  the 
plant  has  ceased  to  send  up  young  growths.  By  forcing, 
sea-kale  may  be  had  in  perfection  from  November  till  May, 
a period  including  all  the  dead  months  of  the  year.  It  is 
remarked  by  Nicol,  that  vegetables  are  seldom  improved 
by  forcing,  but  that  sea-kale  forms  an  exception,  the  forced 
shoots  produced  at  mid-winter  being  more  crisp  apd  delicate 
in  flavour  than  those  procured  in  the  natural  way,  in  April  or 
May.  Sir  George  Mackenzie  {Caled,  Hort,  Mem,  vol.  i. 
313)  observes,  that  sea-kale  cannot  easily  be  overdone  in 
cooking,  and  that,  after  being  well-boiled,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  drained,  and  then  suffered  to  remain  a few 
minutes  before  the  fire,  that  a further  portion  of  moisture 
may  be  exhaled.” — Loudon, 

John  Lowell,  Esq.,  in  a communication,  published  in  the 
Mass,  Agr.  Journal^  says,  “ It  is  very  hardy — grows  in  any 
tolerable  soil — is  perennial,  and  costs  not  half  the  labour 
bestowed  on  asparagus.  It  may  be  raised  from  the  seed 
or  from  the  root,  and  fifty  plants,  occupying  a very  small 
space,  will  supply  a single  family.  In  its  taste  it  resembles 
the  cauliflower.  The  only  labour  it  requires,  is,  to  cover  it 
with  sand  or  earth,  or  with  pots  or  boxes  in  March,  so  as 
to  exclude  the  light,  and  to  blanch  it,  or  make  it  white.  If 
not  blanched,  it  is  neither  so  beautiful  to  the  eye,  nor  so  ten- 
der, nor  so  delicate  to  the  taste,  as  if  blanched.  It  should  be 


268 


SILK. 


thoroughly  boiled,  and  is  better  if  boiled  in  milk  and  water. 
It  should  be  served  up  like  cauliflowers,  with  melted  butter. 
It  comes  in  at  a season  in  which  our  vegetables  in  this 
country  are  very  deficient.” 

Mr.  Armstrong  says,  “ In  November,  whether  your  bed 
has  been  filled  with  plants  or  with  seedlings,  be  careful  to 
cover  them  with  a thick  coat  of  well-rotted  dung,  and  so 
soon  in  the  spring  or  summer  as  you  find  them  pushing 
through  this  covering,  put  over  each  a garden-pot  inverted, 
having  first  stopped  the  bottom  holes.  The  signal  for  cut- 
ting is  when  the  plants  have  arisen  about  three  inches 
above  the  surface.” 

SILK. — The  following  article,  on  a subject,  whose  im- 
portance is  beginning  to  be  duly  appreciated  in  the  United 
States,  was  written  expressly  for  this  work,  at  the  request 
of  the  compiler,  by  a gentleman,  who  has  a practical,  as 
well  as  scientific  knowledge  of  the  processes  pursued  in 
Europe  in  the  manufacture  of  silk  : — 

The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  a duty,  which  was  imposed 
on  man  almost  coeval  with  the  creation.  It  bears  with  it 
the  sanctity  of  a primeval  ordinance,  and  is  irresistibly  en- 
dearing, inasmuch  as  it  admirably  suits  our  nature,  so  as 
to  promote,  in  a singular  degree,  health  and  comfort,  vigour 
and  clearness  of  mind  ; the  blessing  on  a ready  compliance 
with  this  divine  law  is  evident  from  the  happiness  which 
flows  therefrom,  and  which  would  make  of  the  cultivators  of 
the  land,  under  some  better  advantages  of  education,  the 
greatly  favoured  order  of  society.  It  is  at  the  table  of  their 
own  providing,  that  the  nation  is  entertained — it  is  to  the 
vigour,  and  to  the  faithfulness  of  their  arm,  that  it  trusts 
for  its  security. 

All  hail.  Agriculture  and  its  noble  bands ! On  the  fra- 
grant earth  their  appointed  labour  is  performed ; their  dome 
is  the  pure  vault  of  heaven,  and  their  employ  is  that  by 
Mercy  assigned  for  the  renovation  of  our  race.  There, 
since  the  days  of  old,  has  been  the  firm  foundation  of  na- 
tional greatness  and  prosperity ; and  there  it  must  remain 
until  the  end  of  time.  It  is  to  those  purposes,  that  com- 
prehensive and  active  minds  would  find  delight  in  directing 
their  powers,  because  of  the  vastness  of  the  field  to  ex- 
plore, and  of  the  greatness  of  the  results  to  be  expected. 

Much  has  been  said  of  the  roughness  of  the  New  Eng- 
land soil  and  climate,  and  much  more  than  ever  was  true. 
Since  the  time  of  the  Pilgrims,  however,  what  harshness 
there  was  has  been  softened,  and  the  climate,  in  our  days, 


SILK. 


269 

iy  hastening  to  take  its  rank  among  the  most  favoured  for 
temperature  and  healthfulness.  When  the  eye  roams  among 
our  hills  and  vales,  vsdiere  can  we  meet  with  a more  de- 
lightful variety  ? or  a choice  of  aspects,  and  situations,  sc 
valuable  for  agricultural  purposes  ? Some  of  our  land  is 
hard  to  work,  because  it  wants  a more  thorough  cultivation  ; 
and  some  abounds  with  rocks,  that  we  may  find  there 
the  best  materials  for  our  dwellings.  What  is  there  want- 
ing, then,  to  make  of  New  England  a vast  garden  ? Noth- 
ing, but  contented  labour,  and  intelligence  to  direct  it — 
and  that  we  have.  Let  all  awake,  then,  and  try  to  improve, 
to  the  best  advantage,  the  natural  abilities  of  the  country — 
and  we  shall  find,  that,  far  from  any  cause  of  discourage- 
ment, we  are  greatly  favoured. 

To  the  cultivation  of  grain  and  potatoes,  we  have  discov- 
ered (in  late  years)  that  the  soil  and  climate  are  well 
adapted  to  the  raising  of  wool,  even  of  Merino ; and  in 
a wonderfully  short  time,  all  over  the  land,  there  are  great 
sheep-folds.  There  are  also  manufactures  that  employ  all 
that  wool,  and  much  more,  and  provide  us  with  comforta- 
ble and  handsome  clothing. 

There  are  other  mines  yet  unexplored.  To  the  indus- 
trious and  active,  the  prize  must  belong ; and  to  them,  we 
wish  to  point  out  the  article  of  silk,  as  one  most  deserving 
their  attention.  What  is  there,  that  the  soil  can  yield,  so 
rich  as  silk,  and  that  can  be  obtained  with  so  easy  a labour? 
Excepting  the  first  raising  and  planting  of  the  mulberry- 
trees,  all  the  work  can  be  performed  by  women,  children, 
and  aged  people.  We  are  fully  and  sufficiently  satisfied, 
that  this  noble  article  may  be  made  a staple  of  our  coun- 
try ; and  the  advantages  that  would  result  from  it,  in  a 
private  and  national  point  of  view,  are  so  important,  that 
we  cannot  deny  ourselves  the  satisfaction  of  devoting  a few 
pages  of  this  volume  to  that  interesting  subject — hoping 
that  they  may  prove  acceptable  and,  eventually,  useful  to 
many  of  our  readers. 

The  raising  of  silk  is  not  altogether  novel  in  our  land : 
many  individuals  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  have 
attended  to  it  for  a number  of  years,  with  much  advan- 
tage ; and  it  is  a fact  fully  established,  that  the  soil 
and  climate  are  congenial  to  the  flourishirg  growth  of  the 
mulberry ; and  that  the  silk-worms  will  thrive  in  New 
England,  under  proper  management,  as  well  as  they  do  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  where  the  raising  of  silk  is  the  vital 
sinew  of  the  community.  Without  any  further  remarks, 
23* 


270 


SILK. 


we  shall  enter,  therefore,  upon  the  subject,  and  set  down, 
first,  such  practical  information  as  relates  to  the  raising  of 
mulberry-trees. 

The  mulberry  and  the  silk-worm  are  natives  of  Asia. 
They  were  both  unknown  in  Europe  until  the  year  555 — • 
when  the  emperor  Justinian  sent  two  monks  to  Serinda, 
in  India,  from  whence  they  brought  to  Constantinople  the 
seed  of  those  precious  insects,  and  the  necessary  informa- 
tion for  their  management.  Thus  they  laid  the  found  ;tic  n 
of  those  supeib  silk  manufactures,  which,  for  near  seven 
hundred  years,  flourished  in  Greece,  at  Athens,  at  Thebes, 
and  Corinth.  Before  that  time,  the  great  of  the  earth, 
alone,  could  aflbrd  to  clothe  themselves  with  silk ; the 
price  of  which  was  weight  for  weight  in  gold.  About  six 
hundred  years  after,  the  culture  of  silk  was  introduced  from 
Greece  into  Italy;  and  from  thence  into  France,  in  the 
year  1494.  Since  those  days,  it  has  spread  over  all  the 
southern  and  midland  parts  of  Europe,  and  is  now  cultivat- 
ed with  success  as  far  north  as  Prussia,  where  the  mul- 
berry-tree resists  the  most  rigorous  winters  without  injury. 

There  are  two  different  species  of  mulberry, — the  blacky 
which  is  cultivated  for  its  excellent  fruit,  of  a dark  crimson 
colour,  almost  black ; and  is  a tree  of  slower  growth  than 
the  white ; the  leaves  are  larger,  of  a darker  green,  thicker 
and  stronger.  The  silk-worms  will  eat  them  for  the  want 
of  better,  but  they  do  not  thrive  upon  them,  and  the  silk  is 
coarse  and  inferior.  The  white  mulberry-tree  bears  a white, 
or  light  pink  fruit ; and  its  leaves  are  the  most  congenial 
food  for  these  precious  insects ; is  of  a quicker  growth,  and 
does  not  come  to  so  large  a size  as  the  black.  The  white 
mulberry  is  a very  hardy  tree,  and  bears  our  severest  win- 
ters without  any  apparent  injury ; will  last  a great  many 
years,  and,  if  cut  down  close  to  the  ground,  will  send  up 
many  suckers  all  around,  and  resist  destruction  for  several 
years.  There  are  many  kinds  of  white  mulberry,  the 
leaves  of  which  differ  in  point  of  merit  as  a food  for  the 
silk-worm.  Some  are  of  a small  size,  earlier,  and  more 
tender ; and,  on  that  account,  are  cultivated  as  the  most 
proper  for  the  worms  when  first  born ; others  are  large, 
and  of  a peculiar  quality,  which  suits  the  taste  of  the 
worms,  upon  which  they  thrive  best,  and  make  the  hand- 
somest silk.  In  France  and  Italy,  they  universally  graft 
the  wild  stocks  with  those  sorts  which  experience  has 
taught  them  to  be  the  most  valuable. 

At  this  early  stage  of  the  business  with  us,  it  would  bo 


4 


SILK.  271 

difTicult  to  attain,  at  once,  the  nicety  which  a long  practice 
has  introduced  in  the  old  countiies.  Wiiat  we  have  lo  do 
for  the  present,  is,  to  sow  mulberry-seed,  raise  the  young 
plants  as  in  a nursery,  reject  those  whereon  thorns  appear, 
as  being  the  wildest,  and .bearing  the  smallest  leaves  ; also 
those  that  have  thick,  coarse,  hairy  leaves.  Save  those 
that  have  the  largest  and  handsomest  smooth  leaves ; the 
worms  eat  them  more  readilv,  and  experience  has  shown 
that  they  thrive  best  upon  them,  make  more  silk,  and  of  a 
better  quality.  The  best  plants  for  earliness  and  superiori- 
ty of  leaves,  should  be  set  out  and  noted;  as  they  may 
hereafter  furnish  scions  for  grafting.  Upon  a dry  soil,  the 
mulberry-trees  do  not  grow  much  taller  than  our  largest 
peach-trees ; but  they  are  stouter  and  thicker  set.  Their 
>oots,  which  are  of  a remarkably  bright  gold  colour,  (that 
of  silk,)  extend  to  a considerable  distance ; and  they  ought 
not  to  be  planted,  on  that  account,  nearer  than  thirty  feet 
from  tree  to  tree. 

As  the  gathering  of  leaves  too  soon  would  injure  the 
growth  and  constitution  of  the  trees,  we  would  recommend 
that  no  leaves  should  be  gathered  from  them  until  after  the 
fifth  year.  In  the  mean  time  plantations  may  be  made  for 
immediate  use,  by  sowing  the  seed  in  drills,  at  a conveni- 
ent distance  ; planting  beans  or  potatoes  between,  to  keep 
the  ground  clear  of  weeds.  The  second  year  after  sow- 
ing, these  seedlings  might  be  cut  down  with  a sharp  instru- 
ment, three  or  four  inches  from  the  ground,  and  would  give 
a second  crop  the  same  season.  In  the  silk  countries,  the}’- 
raise  seedlings  in  rows  for  the  first  feeding  of  the  worms  : 
these  young  plants,  putting  out  their  leaves  earlier  than 
the  old  trees,  and  being  more  tender,  are  better  adapted  for 
the  worms  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence.  They  also 
plant  the  mulberry-trees,  and  suffer  them  to  grow  accord- 
ing to  unrestrained  nature,  branching  out  from  the  ground. 
This  is  for  the  convenience  of  gathering  the  leaves  more 
easily,  and  making  a food  stronger  than  the  seedlings.  They 
consider  the  leaves  from  trees  regularly  trained,  with  a single 
butt,  and  of  several  years’  growth,  to  give  the  most  substan- 
tial food  ; upon  which  the  worms  should  be  kept  during  the 
last  period  of  their  life,  previous  to  their  ascending,  in  order 
to  obtain  an  abundant  crop  of  silk  of  the  best  quality.  At 
our  first  entering  on  this  new  and  profitable  business,  we 
shall  be  under  the  necessity  of  trusting  Vv holly  to  our  rows 
of  seedlings,  as  the  only  food  we  can  offer  to  the  worms, 
wbpn  the  trees  planted  out  come  to  maturity,  we  shall 


272 


SILK* 


adopt  the  more  systematic  way  of  feeding,  which  experience 
has  pointed  out  as  most  favourable ; although,  with  us,  the 
despatch  of  cutting  down  the  seedlings  for  food,  instead  of 
the  slow  process  of  gathering  leaves,  will  always  remain  an 
object  of  serious  consideration. 

The  white  mulberry  thrives  in  all  soils  and  situations, 
and  will  grow  very  rank  and  full  of  leaves  upon  low,  moist 
ground ; but  the  food  it  affords  in  such  situations  is  very 
inferior,  and  apt  to  disorder  the  worms.  A warm  lonrn, 
even  if  gravelly,  will  give  leaves  of  the  best  quality ; and 
a sheltered,  warm  situation  will  produce  leaves  many  days 
sooner  than  one  which  is  exposed  to  cold,  and  is  desirable 
on  that  account. 

The  mulberry-tree  may  be  raised  from  suckers ; and  some- 
times slips,  stuck  in  a moist  soil,  will  take  root ; if  the  low 
branches  of  a tree  can  be  bent  so  as  to  be  fastened,  and 
covered  in  the  ground,  they  will  take  root.  The  trees  may 
be  planted  near  buildings,  for  shade,  or  in  a yard;  the 
fowls  are  very  fond  of  the  fruit  when  it  fails.  A variety 
of  situations  will  increase  the  means  of  early  and  late  feed- 
ing, which  is  very  desirable. 

We  shall  conclude  these  remarks  on  the  cultivation  of 
the  mulberry,  by  observing,  that  the  most  esteemed  seed 
of  that  tree  in  Europe  is  that  raised  in  Piedmont.  The 
seed  from  Spain  is  also  excellent.  The  seed  of  the  best 
quality  is  large,  bright,  and  heavy ; when  bruised,  it  will 
appear  oily,  and  when  thrown  on  ignited  coals,  it  will 
crackle. 

The  next  object  to  consider  is,  the  seed  frmn  which  the 
worms  are  to  he  hatched;  and  here  it  will  be  proper  to  ob- 
serve, that  one  ounce  of  seed  will  produce  about  forty 
thousand  worms,  who  will  consume  about  one  thousand 

Equnds’  weight  of  leaves,  and  produce  from  eighty  to  one 
undred  pounds  of  cocoons  ; and  twelve  pounds  of  cocoons 
will  give  about  one  pound  of  silk.  It  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  procure  the  best  seed,  because  that  which  is 
inferior  will  produce  sickly  worms,  who  will  be  much  more 
exposed  to  the  various  disorders  to  which  these  insects  are 
subject;  a greater  proportion  will  die,  and  those  which  sur- 
vive will  not  make  good  cocoons.  The  best  seed  is  of  a 
dark  grey  colour,  almost  as  dark  as  slate,  looks  bright,  and 
if  thrown  into  wine  will  sink.  The  seed  which  is  light, 
of  a white  or  yellow  colour,  and  looks  dull,  is  barren  and 
good  for  nothing.  The  seed  should  be  kept  in  a cool, 
dry  situation,  until  the  mulberry-trees  have  their  leaves 


SILK. 


273 


opened  ; when  the  food  is  thus  in  readiness,  then  is  the 
time  to  get  it  hatched.  In  Italy  and  France,  at  that  ap- 
pointed time,  the  women  put  the  seed  in  small  bags  of 
worsted  stuff,  and  place  them  in  their  bosoms,  during  the 
day,  and  at  night  under  their  pillows,  for  about  forty-eight 
hours ; at  the  expiration  of  which,  the  seed  is  transferred 
into  boxes,  over  which  a paper  cover  is  fastened  with  many 
small  holes,  through  which  the  little  worms  will  creep. 
Some  mulberry  leaves  should  be  placed  on  the  paper,  so  that 
they  may  feed,  which  they  will  do  as  soon  as  they  come  to 
life.  These  boxes  are  placed  on  feather  beds  with  pillows 
around  them,  in  order  to  keep  a uniform  heat  whilst  the 
worms  are  hatching.  Those  which  come  to  life  in  the 
course  of  the  same  day,  should  be  collected  and  kept  to- 
gether; they  will  shed  their  skins,  and  ascend  to  make 
their  cocoons,  at  the  same  period.  The  hatching  of  each 
successive  day  should  be  kept  separate ; this  order  will 
render  their  management  and  care  easier,  and  more  profita- 
ble. When  the  hatching  has  been  well  conducted,  the 
heat  proper  and  regular,  most  of  the  worms  will  make  their 
appearance  on  the  third  or  fourth  day ; and  such  seed  as 
has  not  come  to  life  on  the  fifth  or  sixth  day  is  not  worth 
preserving  ; for,  if  it  should  hatch,  the  worms  will  be  weak- 
ly, and  not  likely  to  do  well.  If,  on  the  second  day,  the 
seed  that  has  been  set  to  hatch  should  change  colour,  and 
appear  red,  it  proves  that  the  heat  has  been  too  great,  and 
that  the  seed  is  spoiled. 

In  the  middle  provinces  of  France,  where  the  climate  is 
variable,  and  subject  to  sudden  returns  of  cold,  the  cultiva- 
tors are  very  cautious  occasionally  to  exclude  the  outward 
air,  by  shutting  the  doors  and  windows,  and  always  in  the 
night  and  early  part  of  the  morning.  Sudden  cold,  damp- 
ness, and  especially  foggy  weather,  are  sure  to  injure  the 
worms  by  bringing  disease  upon  them,  which  will  often 
prove  fatal,  and  always  reduce  the  quantity,  and  injure  the 
quality,  of  the  silk.  A uniform  temperature,  not  too  warm, 
is  considered  as  very  desirable  for  the  success  of  the  silk 
crop ; and  about  seventy-three  degrees  of  the  thermometer 
of  Fahrenheit  is  the  most  suitable. 

The  silk-worms  shed  their  skins  four  times,  which  is  for 
them  a period  of  sickness,  during  which  they  do  not  eat, 
but  appear  drowsy,  and  are  more  particularly  affected  by 
any  sudden  change  of  the  weather  to  cold  or  damp.  The 
first  shedding  takes  place  the  sixth  or  seventh  day  after 
their  birth ; the  head  appears  to  increase  in  size,  and  they 


274 


SILK. 


cast  off  their  skins.  This  time  of  trial  for  them  will  last 
three  or  four  days,  if  the  weather  is  warm  and  genial; 
but  if  it  is  cold  and  damp,  they  are  much  longer  to  get 
through  it.  As  soon  as  the  skin  is  cast  off,  they  appear 
active  again,  eat  with  a good  appetite,  and  will  continue 
so  for  six  or  eight  days,  when  the  second  shedding  comes 
on  under  the  same  circumstances,  and  is  succeeded  by  a 
third  and  fourth  shedding.  The  second  shedding  is  the 
easiest  for  them,  and  fewer  die  under  its  operation  than 
during  the  first,  third,  and  fourth.  Eight  days  after  the 
worms  have  got  through  the  fourth  shedding,  and  at  the  end 
of  about  six  weeks  from  the  commencement  of  their  exist- 
ence, they  have  arrived  nearly  to  maturity,  and  are  going 
to  make  their  cocoons,  and  reward  the  care  that  has  been 
taken  of  them.  They  want  then  to  go  up  to  spin  their 
cocoons,  but  it  is  necessary  not  to  encourage  this  natural 
disposition,  until  it  is  evident  that  they  are  fully  ripe.  If 
they  go  up  too  so<^n,  their  cocoons  will  be  light  and  flimsy. 
The  signs  of  their  full  maturity  are,  some  change  in  their 
colour,  which  until  then  is  white ; the  head  appears  wilt- 
ed, the  tail  larger,  the  green  circles  round  the  body  become 
of  a bright  gold  colour,  and  they  keep  moving  about  among 
the  others,  but  without  eating,  and  seem  as  if  stretching 
their  heads  for  the  purpose  of  spinning.  When  the  worms 
exhibit  these  indications,  they  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest,  and  put  into  a place  where  small,  dry  branches  of  oak, 
hazel,  white  birch,  or  any  other  wood,  have  been  prepared 
for  them  to  ascend  and  spin  their  cocoons.  When  they 
have  ascended,  it  will  be  some  days  before  they  begin  to 
spin.  The  first  day  they  lay  out  threads  for  a foundation — 
the  second,  they  form  the  shape  of  the  cocoons — the  third, 
the  worm  is  entombed  and  out  of  sight,  but  continues  to 
spin  (inside)  until  he  has  expended  the  whole  of  his  stock 
of  liquor,  which,  in  general,  is  the  seventh  or  eighth  day. 
The  thread  of  a good  cocoon  is  about  nine  hundred  and 
fifty  feet. 

It  is  highly  important  to  feed  the  worms  in  that  particu- 
lar way  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  the  most  suit- 
able ; the  leaves,  at  all  times,  should  be  dry  when  given  to 
them ; therefore,  when  rain  is  likely  to  fall,  it  is  necessary 
to  gather  in  a stock,  before  they  get  wet ; if  the  weather 
set  in  to  steady  rain,  the  leaves  should  be  spread  in  a sepa- 
rate room,  and  dried  before  they  are  given  to  the  worms ; 
leaves  wetted  by  rain,  or  dew,  will  either  kill  them,  or  bring 
on  some  bad  disorder ; from  their  birth  to  the  second  shed- 


SILK. 


275 


ding,  they  should  be  fed  twice  a day,  mor.]iing  and  cv^en- 
ing ; afterwards  three  times  a day,  to  the  fourth  shedding ; 
and  then,  until  they  ascend,  four,  live,  or  six  times  a day,  as 
they  may  seem  to  require  it;  from  the  fourth  shedding  until 
they  ascend,  their  appetite  is  voracious,  and  it  should  be 
satisfied  by  an  abundance  of  leaves  of  the  best  quality ; 
those  from  old  trees,  matured  by  age,  should  be  reserved  for 
this  period,  and  given  to  them  fresh  gathered  and  dry. 

The  worms,  throughout  the  period  of  their  existence, 
should  be  attended  with  great  care  and  regularity ; they 
should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  clearing  away,  often,  the 
remains  of  the  leaves,  their  own  ordure,  &c.,  which  other- 
wise would  create  a disagreeable  effluvia,  and  breed  disor- 
ders among  them ; bad  smells  are  very  obnoxious  to  them, 
and  no  smoking  of  tobacco  should  be  allowed  where  they 
arc  kept ; they  should  be  fed  early  in  the  morning,  and 
good  leaves  should  be  given  them  regularly  at  the  times 
appointed,  that  no  waste  of  food  may  take  place ; the  leaves 
should  be  fresh  gathered,  unless  in  rainy  weather,  and  no 
leaves  offered  to  them,  that  have  been  kept  in  the  house 
until  they  have  become  yellow  and  sour,  which  will  be  the 
case,  in  general,  after  the  third  day ; it  is  upon  these  atten- 
tions, that  a good  crop  depends;  half-starved,  neglected 
worms,  will  give  light,  flimsy  cocoons,  whilst  the  diligent 
will  get  them  heavy  and  rich ; worms  well  attended  to,  and 
generously  fed,  will  complete  the  crop  within  forty-five  or 
fifty  days ; those  that  are  neglected  will  languish  over  two 
months,  and  yield  a light  result. 

The  French  and  Italian  establishments  require  large 
premises,  and  a great  variety  of  utensils,  such  as  benches, 
baskets,  boxes  of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  to  suit  their  ex- 
tensive concerns ; in  the  progress  of  time,  it  will  become 
advisable  for  us  to  get  acquainted  with  the  minutiae  of  their 
arrangements ; but  at  the  present  day,  we  shall  only  point  out 
such  preparations  as  may  be  requisite  to  make  a beginning, 
and  which  each  individual  concerned  may  afterwards  in- 
crease and  modify,  according  to  his  own  views  and  situation. 

Wherever  silk- worms  are  to  be  raised  in  any  number,  it 
is  evident  that  a room  should  be  appropriated  solely  for  that 
purpose  ; any  aspect  will  answer,  except  north ; the  worms 
require  heat,  but  it  must  be  a free  heat,  that  is,  with  a suf- 
ficient circulation  of  air ; a close,  sultry  air  is  very  bad  for 
them,  and  so  is  a damp  air ; we  would  much  prefer,  on  that 
account,  a room  up  stairs  to  one  on  the  ground  floor ; an 
unfinished  room  would  answer  very  well ; the  doors  and 


276 


SILK. 


windows  ought  to  oe  closed  whenever  a sudden  transition 
to  cold  or  damp  takes  place,  or  a thunder-storm  comes  on, 
wdiich,  oftenHmes,  will  prove  an  injury  to  these  insects ; 
shelve®  or  boards,  put  up  round  the  room,  would  be  very 
convenient  to  keep  the  worms  on,  and,  if  requisite,  a frame 
in  the  centre  of  the  room,  with  shelves  one  over  the  other, 
sheets  of  large,  stiff  paper,  or  of  pasteboard,  with  the  edges 
turned  up  all  round,  and  stitched  at  the  corners,  would  an- 
swer very  well  to  keep  and  feed  the  worms  in,  and  when 
they  are  to  be  cleaned,  new  leaves  might  be  put  in  a fresh 
paper,  and  laid  by  the  side  of  that  which  wants  cleaning ; 
the  worms  would  leave  it  quickly  to  go  to  the  fresh  leaves. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  appropriate  a corner  for  the  dis- 
eased worms  ; in  the  most  favoured  crop,  there  will  be 
many,  and  they  ought  to  be  taken  away  immediately,  from 
among  the  rest,  and  put  into  the  hospital  to  recover,  other- 
wise the  contagion  may  extend,  and  a great  loss  ensue. 

After  the  cocoons  are  made,  the  first  care  is  to  take  them 
down  from  the  brush,  clearing  away  the  loose  silk  by  which 
they  are  fastened,  and  selecting  the  best,  those  that  feel 
hard  and  substantial,  and  of  the  brightest  colour,  to  keep 
for  seed  ; the  most  desirable  are  the  worms,  which,  at  the 
hatching  time,  came  to  life  first ; they  prove  to  be  the  most 
hardy,  and  will  make  the  best  stock ; it  is  necessary  to  keep 
an  equal  number  of  each  sex ; the  male  cocoons  are  the 
longest  and  thinnest,  pointed  at  both  ends  ; the  females  are 
larger  and  rounder,  blunt  at  both  ends,  and  resembling 
somewhat  in  shape  a hen’s  egg ; these  chosen  cocoons  are 
to  be  threaded  with  a needle,  in  strings  of  fifty,  more  or 
less,  taking  great  care  to  run  the  needle  slightly  through 
the  silk,  without  hurting  the  chrysalis  which  is  inside ; 
these  strings  are  to  be  hung  against  the  wainscot  of  the 
room,  and,  in  the  course  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  the 
millers  will  come  out,  males  and  females ; the  males  always 
come  out  first ; the  females  are  the  whitest  and  the  largest ; 
the  males  appear  most  active,  and  shake  their  wings.  It  is 
necessary  to  procure  pieces  of  woollen  cloth,  (the  Italians 
always  use  scarlet,)  and  to  place  the  millers  on  them  in 
rov/s,  male  and  female  by  the  side  of  each  other ; after 
pairing,  the  male  dies  ; the  female  soon  lays  her  seed  on 
the  cloth ; it  appears  as  if  glued  on  ; a female  yields  about 
three  hundred  seeds  ; they  are  first  white  or  yellow,  and 
change  to  various  hues,  and  finally,  if  good,  become  and  re- 
main of  a dark  grey.  The  Italians  preserve  the  seed  on  the 
pieces  of  scarlet  clotli,  and  at  the  proper  time  their  women 


SILK. 


277 


wear  them  in  their  bosoms,  as  observed  before,  to  hatch  it. 
The  French  are  in  the  habit  of  scraping  the  seed  off  from  the 
cloth,  and  by  wetting,  slightly,  the  back  of  the  cloth,  it 
will  come  off  easy,  and  without  injury ; they  put  it  up,  then, 
in  small  bags ; whether  it  is  scraped  from,  or  left  on  the 
cloth,  it  should  be  packed  carefully,  and  preserved  over  the 
winter,  in  a dry  place,  where  it  does  not  freeze^  and  where  it 
is  not  too  hot ; if  it  should  freeze,  the  principle  of  life  would 
be  destroyed,  and  if  it  should  be  too  warm,  the  seed  would 
start  for  hatching,  and  would  be  lost ; one  hundred  pair  of 
cocoons  will  weigh  about  one  pound,  and  give  about  one 
ounce  of  seed. 

Persons  who  intend  to  make  a business  of  raising  silk 
should  raise  their  own  seed ; it  is  too  important  a part  of 
the  concern  to  intrust  to  strangers ; they  should  pay  the 
most  particular  attention  to  the  choice  of  the  cocoons,  which 
they  select  for  seed,  and  to  the  preservation  of  that  seed 
through  the  winter.  The  French  use  stoves  to  warm  occa- 
sionally the  rooms,  where  the  worms  are  reared,  and  thus 
secure  them  against  any  unexpected  return  of  cold  weather, 
and  perhaps  it  may  be  requisite  to  use  that  caution  in  such 
parts  of  New  England,  as  are  much  to  the  north  or  west  of 
Boston ; in  its  neighbourhood,  and  farther  south,  we  be- 
lieve that  it  would  not  be  necessary,  and  that  the  only  cau 
tion  requisite,  would  be  the  closing  of  doors  and  windows, 
whenever  a sudden  change  in  the  weather  might  require 
it.  We  have  observed  before,  that  hot  weather  is  favour- 
able for  the  worms,  and  they  can  bear  it  to  a high  degree, 
provided  it  is  not  sultry  and  close ; on  that  account,  the 
room  where  they  are  kept  should  be  so  situated,  and  the 
windows  so  arranged,  that  there  may  be  at  any  time  a 
thorough  draft,  when  wanted,  so  as  to  prevent  that  dead- 
ness of  air,  and  unpleasant  smell,  which  would  greatly  en- 
danger the  health  and  lives  of  the  worms  ; in  extreme  cases 
of  sultriness,  the  French  are  in  the  habit  of  burning  a small 
quantity  of  nitre,  in  an  earthen  ware  dish,  which  greatly 
improves  the  atmosphere  of  the  premises  ; it  may  also  an- 
swer a good  purpose,  in  such  cases,  to  heat  a brick  or  a 
stone,  and  throw  on  it  some  vinegar. 

Respecting  the  hatching,  from  the  information  we  have 
obtained  of  individuals  who  have  attended  to  that  business 
in  our  country,  nothing  is  required,  when  the  proper  time 
comes,  but  to  place  the  seed  in  a warmer  room,  but  not  to 
the  sun,  and  it  will  hatch  naturally  in  the  course  of  a short 
time ; it  will  take  several  days,  and  a longer  time  than  when 
24 


278 


SILK. 


assisted  by  human  heat ; but  which  is  the  best,  and  prefer- 
able method  of  the  two,  for  our  climate,  time  and  experi- 
ence must  determine ; the  French  and  Italians  think  the 
finest  crop  is  generally  secured  by  hastening  the  worms 
through  the  various  stages  of  their  existence,  from  the 
hatching  to  the  ascending,  and  that  any  check  or  delay  is 
to  be  esteemed  as  unfavourable  to  the  ultimate  success ; 
hence  their  vigilance  to  secure  an  even  temperature  in  the 
apartments,  an  abundance  of  food  for  the  worms,  adapted 
to  their  age,  in  its  quality,  a perfect  and  constant  cleanliness, 
and  such  an  arrangement  of  the  windows,  doors,  and  traps 
in  the  floors,  as  to  ensure  a free  circulation  of  air,  and  to 
prevent  that  suffocating  and  offensive  atmosphere,  which 
would  undoubtedly  occasion  a great  mortality  among  them. 
The  cocoons  will  not  be  of  a uniform  colour,  they  will  be  of 
various  shades  of  yellow,  and  some  white,  yet  they  all  are 
of  one  and  the  same  species,  and  may  all  be  worked  to- 
gether ; after  the  cocoons  are  gathered,  and  cleared  of  the 
iios  silk,  which  fastened  them  to  the  brush,  they  should  be 
reeled  without  delay,  and  before  the  millers  come  out,  for 
if  the  silk  is  left  on  until  then,  the  quality  is  thereby  in- 
jured ; they  should  be  thrown  into  a kettle  of  hot  water,  a 
small  quantity  at  a time,  and  stirred  with  light,  clean  rods; 
tills  will  dissolve  the  tenacious  gum  by  which  the  threads 
adhere  together ; female  industry  will  search  out  the  end 
of  the  thread,  and  wind  and  spin  the  threads  from  ten  to 
fourteen  cocoons  together  into  one  single  thread,  with  that 
care  and  correctness  which  will  make  a silk  perfectly  even, 
and  perfectly  clean. 

Here  we  could  enter  into  minute  details,  and  furnish 
drawings  of  such  wdnding  and  reeling  machines  as  are  used 
in  the  large  Italian  and  French  establishments,  but  we  con- 
skier  that,  at  the  present  early  period,  it  would  have  a ten- 
dency to  fatigue  and  perplex  the  attention  of  such  of  our 
readers  as  may  wish  to  embark  in  a trial ; their  first  attempt 
will  probably  be  upon  a limited  scale,  and  undoubtedly  the 
simple  means  used  for  winding  and  reeling  in  this  state  and 
in  Connecticut,  w^hich  may  be  more  easily  learnt  by  actual 
view  tlian  by  tedious  descriptions,  will  be  found  amply  suf- 
ficient, and,  as  we  progress  in  the  business,  our  own  intelli- 
gence and  experience,  gradually  assisted  by  further  informa- 
tion respecting  the  practice  of  Europe,  will  make  us  fully 
acquainted  with  the  best  process.  When  it  is  not  conveni- 
ent to  wind  and  reel  all  the  cocoons  at  that  time,  then  all 
the  millers  must  be  destroyed  before  they  come  out,  in  order 


SILK. 


279 


to  save  the  silk  from  injury ; this  may  be  done  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  ; — a kettle  of  hot  water  must  be  prepared,  and, 
when  boiling,  a sieve,  filled  with  cocoons  about  three  or  four 
inches  thick,  may  be  placed  over  the  kettle,  so  as  to  receive 
the  hot  steam  without  dipping  in  the  water ; a wooden 
cover  may  be  placed  over  the  sieve  to  confine  the  steam, 
and,  after  leaving  it  in  that  situation  for  about  ten  minutes, 
you  throw  the  cocoons  into  a cloth,  and  wrap  them  up  in  it, 
that  the  heat  may  be  sure  to  penetrate  into  them,  and  de- 
stroy the  life  of  the  chrysalis  ; they  must,  immediately  af- 
terwards, be  spread  in  the  sun  to  dry  thoroughly,  and  then 
be  put  away  on  shelves,  or  on  a floor,  spread  very  thin,  that 
the  dead  insects  within  may  dry  up  and  harden,  otherwise 
they  might  corrupt  there,  and  stain  the  silk ; when  this  is 
done,  the  cocoons  may  be  kept,  if  convenient,  for  three 
years,  without  any  ill  effect  to  the  quality  of  the  silk,  which 
will  wind  easily,  and  be  as  good  as  if  it  had  been  wound 
immediately,  but  will  not  appear  quite  so  bright. 

At  the  opening  of  the  season,  the  object  to  attend  to  is, 
as  soon  as  convenient,  to  procure  good  seed  of  the  white 
mulberry,  and  to  sow  it  in  rows  as  before  directed,  hoeing 
the  young  plants  carefully  and  frequently,  to  keep  them 
free  from  weeds,  and  as  thrifty  as  possible,  that  they  may 
gain  strength  not  to  suffer  from  the  first  winter:  the  second 
spring  after  sowing,  they  will  be  in  a good  condition  for 
gathering,  and  feeding  the  worms;  nay,  any  person,  who 
should  feel  desirous  of  driving  the  business,  might  begin  to 
use  them  the  first  spring  after  sowing,  and  keep  one  sowing 
in  reserve,  not  to  be  used  until  the  third  year,  when  the 
plants,  being  better  rooted,  and  stronger,  could  bear,  without 
any  ill  consequences,  to  be  cut  down  near  the  ground,  and 
would  soon  be  up  again  for  a second  crop ; it  would  be 
desirable  to  transplant  some  of  the  young  trees  into  edge 
rows,  placing  them  at  the  distance  of  two  feet  apart,  and 
suffering  them  to  grow  in  the  manner  of  bushes,  which 
would  be  convenient  for  gathering  the  leaves  ; some  also 
should  be  transplanted  to  grow  singly  with  a butt ; such 
trees  (as  mentioned  before)  will  give  the  best  and  most 
substantial  food ; thus  the  drills  of  seedlings  would  give  the 
earliest  and  tenderest  food  for  the  little  worms  at  their  birth, 
the  leaves  of  the  edge-rows  would  afford  a food  next  in 
substance,  suitable  after  the  second  shedding,  and  the 
eaves  of  the  mature  standard  trees  would,  after  the  fourth 
shedding,  offer  to  their  voraciousness  that  substantial  food, 
which  is  very  requisite,  at  that  time,  to  satisfy  them,  and  tr 


280 


SILK. 


ensure  a rich  and  heavy  crop ; choosing  for  the  whole  plan ' 
tation  a piece  of  sheltered,  high  ground,  sweet  and  W’^ell 
laid  to  the  sun,  and  planting  ridges,  hedges,  and  trees,  in 
such  a manner  as  will  give  to  all  the  uninterrupted  benefit 
of  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun. 

Fully  aware  of  the  importance  of  the  object  we  have 
presented  to  the  attention  of  the  community,  we  cannot 
leave  it,  without  making  a concluding  appeal  to  the  intelli- 
gence and  energy  of  our  countrymen,  not  to  suffer  any  de- 
lay to  take  place  in  setting  their  hands  to  a work  so  prom- 
ising of  results  the  most  favourable  to  our  comforts,  and  for 
our  welfare  : the  first  step  is  wfitliin  the  farmer’s  immediate 
department,  to  sow  the  mulberry-seed,  and  rear  the  young 
trees ; and  after  two  years  of  attendance,  the  silk  raising 
may  commence  in  good  earnest,  and  will  become  a healthy 
and  pleasant  business  for  children  and  young  women.  This 
rich  crop  will  require  but  two  months’  care  to  secure  it,  and, 
wfien  the  business  shall  flourish  on  a large  scale,  which  we 
anticipate  as  probable  within  a short  period,  the  rais- 
ing of  the  cocoons  will  become  a distinct  occupation  for 
farmers’  families ; the  winding  and  reeling  of  them,  most 
probably,  will  be  carried  on  as  a distinct  and  separate 
branch  of  industry ; this  is  actually  the  case  in  all  the  silk- 
growing countries,  where  the  cocoons  are  carried  to  the 
public  markets,  and  sold  for  ready  cash  to  those  who  keep 
filatures,  where  they  wind  and  reel  them. 

Great  advantages  will  accrue  to  the  younger  members  of 
farmers’  families,  in  cultivating  so  pleasant  and  profitable  an 
employment  at  home  : it  will  offer  to  many  young  women 
a choice  between  home  and  the  factories,  and  a resource 
in  case  the  liberal  encouragement  given  to  manufactures 
should  eventually  prove  the  cause  of  business  being  over- 
done ; it  will  also  offer  valuable  resources  for  the  pauper 
establishments,  where  the  old  and  infirm,  under  a discreet 
and  judicious  government,  may  be  made  to  provide  them- 
selves a comfortable  support.  If  we  take  a retrospective 
view  of  the  affairs  of  mankind,  since  the  times  of  early 
record,  we  find  that  the  riches  and  the  prosperity  resulting 
from  commerce  and  navigation,  or  from  a system  of  exten- 
sive manufactures,  however  brilliant,  are  comparatively  of 
short  and  uncertain  duration ; the  changes  of  views  and 
systems  of  a government  at  home,  the  changes  of  policy 
among  foreign  nations,  render  the  whole  fabric  subject  to 
many  sudden  and  unforeseen  vicissitudes,  and  dependent 
Upon  the  results  of  relations  abroad,  and  of  the  compromise 


SKIllRET. 


281 

of  jarring  interests  at  home,  setting  at  defiance,  in  the 
course  of  time,  the  subtle  calculations  of  the  most  accom- 
plished statesman ; but  the  prosperity  which  is  founded  upon 
a perfected  agriculture,  that  combines  with  intelligence  the 
abilities  of  the  soil  and  climate,  so  as  to  naturalize,  by  in- 
dustry, rich  crops  of  products,  unknown  to  its  original  situ- 
ation, is  a prosperity  not  liable  to  changes  ; it  becomes  in- 
herent and  lasting.  Of  the  great  results  of  a rich  cultiva- 
tion upon  the  circumstances  and  ability  of  a people,  Italy 
affords  a convincing  illustration  : although  groaning  under 
bigotry  and  priestcraft,  without  foreign  commerce,  and  with- 
out foreign  navigation,  yet,  at  various  periods,  three  or  four 
years  of  peace,  with  good  crops  of  silk  and  oil,  (silk  is  the 
richest,)  have  filled  the  country  again  with  competence, 
after  the  dreadful  devastations  of  war. 

There  is  a certain  order  in  society,  the  members  of  which, 
although  not  united  by  the  bonds  of  corporate  privileges, 
although  unknown  to,  and  unacquainted  v/ith,  each  other, 
yet  move  on  with  a steady  and  harmonious  step  to  one  com- 
mon end, — the  prosperity  of  their  country,  the  welfare  of  all 
its  inhabitants ; to  them,  the  powerful  Bearers  of  Light,  re- 
spectfully, we  would  recommend  the  consideration  of  the 
object  of  these  lines,  and  if  their  judgment  joins  in  accord- 
ance with  our  own,  we  invite  them  to  endeavour  to  accel- 
erate its  completion,  and  to  save  it  from  a lingering  course 
through  one  or  two  generations.  The  knowledge  of  the 
rearing  of  silk  was  imparted,  in  the  course  of  about  six 
hundred  years,  by  Greece  to  neighbouring  Italy,  and  in  about 
three  hundred  and  forty  years  more,  it  was  communicated 
across  the  line  between  Italy  and  France  ; thus  the  progress 
was  slow  indeed ; but  such  are  the  miserable  results  of  ig- 
norance and  bad  policy. 

We  would  repeat,  that  the  first  step  is  to  prepare  an 
abundance  of  food  for  the  silk-worms  by  stocking  our 
warm,  light  lands  with  white  mulberry-trees  ; accordingl)q 
wherever  there  are  now  white  mulberry-trees  bearing  fruit, 
the  fruit  should  be  carefully  collected,  when  fully  ripe,  and 
the  seed  should  be  washed  *oiit,  dried,  and  preserved ; it 
will  be  much  wanted,  and  it  is  both  the  duty  and  the  inter- 
est of  the  owners  not  to  suffer  even  the  smallest  part  to  go 
to  waste. 

SKIRRET. — Stum  sisarum. — The  skirret  is  a perennial 
tap-rooted  plant,  a native  of  China.  The  lower  leaves  are 
pinnated,  and  the  stem  rises  about  a foot  higl.,  terminated 
Dy  an  umbel  of  white  flowers,  in  July  and  August.  The 
24 


582 


SPINACH,  OR  SPINAGE 


root  is  composed  of  fleshy  tubers,  about  the  size  of  the  lit- 
tle finger,  and  joined  together  at  the  crown  or  head : they 
were  formerly  much  esteemed  in  cookery.  In  the  north  of 
Scotland,  the  plant  is  cultivated  under  the  name  of  crurrir 
mock, 

“ Culture, — This  plant  grows  freely  in  a lightish  soil, 
moderately  good.  It  is  propagated  both  from  seed,  and  by 
offsets  of  established  roots.  The  better  method  is,  to  raise 
seedlings,  to  have  the  root  in  perfection,  young  and  tender. 

By  seed. — ‘ Sow  between  the  21st  of  March  and  the 
15th  of  April;  a fortnight  later,  rather  than  any  earlier,  for 
a full  crop,  as  plants  raised  forward  in  spring  are  apt  to  start 
for  seed  in  summer.  Sow  on  an  open  compartment  of  light 
ground,  in  small  drills  eight  inches  apart.  When  the  plants 
are  one  or  two  inches  high,  thin  them  to  five  or  six  inches 
asunder.  They  will  enlarge  in  growth  till  the  end  of  au- 
tumn ; but  before  the  roots  are  full  grown,  in  August,  Sep- 
tember, or  October,  some  may  be  taken  up  for  consumption 
as  wanted  : those  left  to  reach  maturity  will  continue  good 
for  use  throughout  winter,  and  in  spring,  till  the  stems  run.’ 

By  slips. — ‘ Having  some  plants  of  last  year’s  rais- 
ing, furnished  with  root-offsets,  slip  them  off ; taking  only 
the  young  outward  slips,  and  not  leaving  any  of  the  larger 
old  roots  adhering  to  the  detached  offsets  ; which  plant  by 
dibble,  in  rows  from  six  to  nine  inches  asunder.  They 
will  soon  strike,  and  enlarge,  and  divide  into  offsets ; which, 
as  well  as  the  main  roots,  are  eatable,  and  come  in  for  use 
in  proper  season.’ 

“ To  save  seed, — Leave  some  old  plants  in  the  spring ; 
they  will  shoot  up  stalks,  and  ripen  seed  in  autumn.” — Lou-- 
don. 

Use, — The  tubers  are  boiled,  jserved  up  with  butter, 
and  are  declared  by  Worlidge,  in  1682,  to  be  ^the  sweet- 
est, whitest,  and  most  pleasant  of  roots.’  ” — Loudon,  The 
common  skirret  has  an  agreeable  aromatic  flavour,  and 
abounds  with  saccharine  particles  : hence  it  has  been  con- 
jectured that  sugar  might  be  advantageously  extracted  from 
the  root ; and  M.  Margraff  states,  that  he  obtained  one  ounce 
and  a half  of  pure  sugar  from  half  a pound  of  this  vegeta- 
ble. In  a medicinal  view,  it  possesses  diuretic  properties, 
and  is  in  a slight  degree  stimulant. — Dom,  Encyc, 

SPINACH,  or  SPINAGE.— oleracea.—The 
common  spinage  is  an  annual  plant,  but  it  is  not  known  of 
what  country  it  is  a native.  The  leaves  are  large,  the 
stems  hollow,  branching,  and,  when  allowed  to  produce 


SPINACH,  OR  SPINAGE. 


283 


flowers,  rising  from  two  to  tliree  feet  high.  The  male  and 
female  flowers  are  produced  on  different  plants  : the  former 
come  in  long  terminal  spikes ; the  latter  in  clusters,  close 
to  the  stalk  at  every  joint. 

Varieties, — Russell’s  Catalogue  contains  the  follow- 
ing 

Round-leaved,  or  summer  5 
Prickly,  or  fall  5 

En^lisli  palience  dock,  rumex  patien- 

tia,  {for  early  greens  ;) 

Times  of  sowing. — “ The  round  is  sown  in  April — the 
others  from  August  to  September.  The  prickly  is  sown  in 
August  and  September  for  early  spring  greens.” — RusselVs 
Catalogue. 

Soil  and  situation. — As  the  excellence  of  spinaceous  plants 
consists  in  the  succulency  of  the  leaves,  almost  every  thing 
depends  on  giving  them  a rich  soil,  stirring  it  frequently, 
and  supplying  water  in  dry  seasons.  The  space  they  occu- 
py in  the  garden  is  not  considerable,  say  a thirtieth  part ; 
more  especially  as  some  of  them,  the  common  spinage  for 
example,  often  come  in  as  a temporary  crop  between  rows 
of  peas  or  beans,  or  among  cauliflowers,  broccoli,  &c. 

Seed  and  process  in  sowing. — “ When  raised  by  itself, 
spinage  is  generally  sown  broad-cast,  and  two  ounces  will 
sow  a bed  four  feet  and  a half  by  thirty  feet ; but  in  drills, 
one  ounce  will  sow  the  same  space.  In  drills  it  is  easier 
to  weed  and  gather : let  the  drills  be  from  nine  to  twelve 
inches  apart.  Beds  four  feet  wide,  with  small  alleys,  are 
convenient  of  access.  Let  the  ground  be  thoroughly  dug. 
Whether  broad-cast  or  in  drills,  sow  thinly,  and  rake  or 
earth  in  about  an  inch  deep. 

Subsequent  culture. — When  the  plants  are  up,  showing 
leaves  about  an  inch  broad,  clear  them  from  weeds,  either 
by  hand  or  small  hoeing,  and  thin  the  plants,  where  crowd- 
ed, (especially  the  broad-cast  crops,)  to  three  inches  apart  ; 
and,  when  advanced  in  growth,  every  other  may  be  cut  out 
for  use,  increasing  the  distance  to  about  six  inches,  that 
the  remainder  may  grow  stocky,  with  large  spreading 
leaves.  The  plants  of  the  early  and  succession  crops  at- 
tain proper  growth  for  gathering  in  April,  May  and  June. 
When  the  leaves  are  from  two  to  five  inches  in  breadth, 
cut  the  plants  clean  out  to  the  bottom,  or  sometimes  cut 
only  the  largest  leaves.  But  as  soon  as  there  is  any  ap- 
pearance of  their  running  to  seed,  they  may  be  drawn  ou^ 
clean  as  wanted.” 


Holland  or  Iambus  quarter  ; 

New  Zealand;  tetr^ona  eoepansis,  (a 
valuable  new  sort.) 


284 


S<^UASH. 


To  save  seed, — To  obtain  seed  of  the  ronnd-Ieaved, 
leave  a sufficient  quantity  of  established  plants  in  April, 
May,  or  June,  to  run  up  in  stalks ; or  transplant  in  autumn 
some  of  the  spring-sown  which  have  not  run.  To  save 
seed  of  the  triangular  spinage,  transplant,  in  March,  some 
good  strong  plants,  of  the  winter  crop.  For  large  supplies, 
a portion  of  each  may  be  sown  in  February,  or  the  tirst 
fortnight  of  March,  to  stand  wholly  for  seeding.  Sow  each 
sort  separate.  Respecting  both  sides,  observe  that  they 
are  of  the  class  Dicecia^  the  male  and  female  flowers  grow- 
ing separately,  on  two  distinct  plants.  When  the  plants 
are  flowering  for  seed,  the  cultivator  should  examine  wheth- 
er the  male  plants,  distinguishable  by  the  abundant  farina 
upon  the  blossoms,  stand  crowded  or  numerous  to  excess ; 
in  which  case  he  should  pull  up  the  superfluous  plants, 
leaving  a competency  for  fertilizing  the  female  blossoms, 
which  else  would  prove  abortive.  And  when  the  female 
blossoms  are  set,  it  is  best  to  dispose  of  all  the  male  plants, 
drawing  them  by  hand ; which  will  give  more  room  to 
the  females  to  grow  and  perfect  their  seed.  The  plants  re 
jected  may  be  profitably  given  to  young  pigs.  The  seed 
ripens  in  July  and  August.” — Abercrombie. 

Use, — “ The  leaves  are  used  in  soups,  or  boiled  alone,  and 
mashed,  and  served  up  with  gravies,  butter,  and  hard-boiled 
eggs.  The  leaves  may  be  obtained  from  sowings  in  the  open 
ground  at  most  seasons  of  the  year,  but  chiefly  in  spring, 
when  they  are  largest  and  most  succulent.” — Loudon, 
According  to  the  opinion  of  French  physicians,  this  plant 
is  not  only  food,  but  physic,  and  is  hence  emphatically 
called  ^ Le  balai  de  Pestomac’^ — the  broom  of  the  stomach 
• — sweeping  and  deterging  every  hole  and  corner  of  that 
organ,  without  giving  pain,  or  in  any  degree  interrupting 
the  ordinary  avocations  of  the  persons  employing  it.” — 
Armstrong. 

SQUASH. — Cucurbita  melo  pepo. — The  squash  is  a 
species  of  the  cucurbita^  and  seems  to  be  the  link  which 
connects  the  melon  and  pumpkin. 

The  varieties  mentioned  in  RusselPs  Catalogue  are — 


Early  bush  summer ; 
Long*  crook-neck,  or  bell  j 
Vegetable  marrow  5 
Acorn  5 


Commodore  Valparaiso,  {grows  large ^ 
and  is  highly  esteemed ;) 

Canada  crook-neck;  [small,  and  of 
superior  quality,) 


Squashes,  of  every  kind,  may  be  cultivated  as  directed 
for  cucumbers  and  melons — should  be  sown  at  the  same 
time,  and  at  similar  distances,  with  this  difference,  that  two 


STRAWBERRY. 


286 


plants  of  these  will  be  plenty  for  each  hill,  and  that  they 
are  easier  j)l eased  with  soil  and  preparation  than  the  oth- 
ers.”— M‘‘ Mahon. 

Use. — The  squash  is  applicable  to  all  the  uses  of  the 
pumpkin,  and,  for  many  purposes,  is  superior  to  that  vege- 
table. 

STRAWBERRY. — Fragaria. — The  substance  of  the 
following  article  was  written  for  this  work,  at  the  particular 
request  of  its  compiler,  by  a gentleman  of  Boston,  whose 
success,  as  a practical,  is  equal  to  his  skill  as  a scientif- 
ic horticulturist ; and  whose  liberality  in  imparting  his 
knowledge,  as  well  as  the  results  of  its  successful  applica- 
tion in  introducing  excellent  varieties  of  fruits,  merits  the 
thanks  of  the  community. 

Varieties. — Every  year  is  producing  new  varieties  of  this 
as  well  as  almost  all  other  fruits,  from  the  care  and  attention 
which  are  bestowed  on  them  by  the  scientific  cultivators 
of  Europe,  among  whom,  at  the  present  day,  Mr.  Knight, 
the  president  of  the  London  Horticultural  Society,  seems 
to  take  the  lead. 

Society  owes  much  to  these  gentlemen,  and  they  are 
constantly  receiving  the  reward  of  their  labours  from  the 
many  and  continued  testimonies  of  approbation,  which  their 
success  calls  forth.  But  their  chief  gratification  is  derived 
from  the  pursuit  itself,  which,  above  all  others,  is  calculat- 
ed to  soothe  and  tranquillize  the  mind,  and  to  lead  men  to 

look  through  Nature  up  to  Nature’s  God.” 

The  kinds  most  esteemed  in  England  are  the  pine,  im- 
perial, Bostock,  Surinam,  Bath  scarlet,  Downton,  rose- 
berry,  Hudson  Bay,  large  scarlet,  musk  hautbois,  round 
hautbois,  and  flat  hautbois. 

In  France,  the  Bath  scarlet  is  of  long  standing,  and 
much  esteemed.  The  white,  the  Alpine,  or  monthly,  and 
the  Chili,  are  also  favourites. 

The  Chili  is  a shy  bearer,  but  very  large  when  it  comes 
to  maturity — ^is  not,  I believe,  known  here  : it  stands  on  a 
stiff,  upright,  and  strong  stem,  in  lieu  of  a pendulous  one, 
like  the  Hudson. 

The  Downton  is,  hov/ever,  I believe,  a larger  strawberry, 
and  is  uncommonly  high  flavoured.  There  are  other  new 
varieties  very  large,  of  which  I know  nothing.  The  form 
of  the  Downton  is  various  ; many  of  them  are  shaped  like 
a cock’s  comb,  which  name  it  has  obtained  in  some  horti- 
cultural works.  It  was  raised  from  seed  by  Mr.  Knight, 


286 


STRAWBERKr. 


at  Downton^  the  name  of  his  estate,  and  is  a very  good 
bearer. 

The  roseherry  is,  in  point  of  flavour,  surpassed  by  no 
cultivated  strawberry  I have  seen.  It  resembles,  in  form 
and  flavour,  the  Alpine,  but  is  a better  bearer.  This  last, 

The  Alpine^  is  a monthly  strawberry ; it  continues  m 
bearing  from  June  until  OcAOber  in  this  climate — is  like  the 
wood-strawberry  in  form  and  flavour,  but  is  a shy  bearer. 

The  scarlets  are  all  large  and  fine  fruit;  the  largest  va- 
riety are  fine  flavoured  and  very  early.  They  are  not  very 
great  bearers,  but  should  be  cultivated  as  valuable  varieties, 
as  well  as  for  their  beauty  and  excellent  qualities. 

The  hautbois  is  the  favourite  English  strawberry.  It  is 
totally  different  from  what  is  commonly  called  the  hautbois 
in  this  country.  The  flat  hautbois  grows  generally  on  the 
top  of  the  vines — is  brown,  and  greenish  white  when  ripe 
— fine  flavoured,  pretty  good  bearer,  but  difficult  to  detach 
from  its  stalk. 

The  round  hautbois  is  of  a dark  purple  when  ripe — is 
somewhat  in  form  like  the  common  red  strawberry,  but 
larger ; and  the 

Musk  hautbois  is  like  the  preceding — a shy  bearer,  but 
very  delicious. 

The  mood-strawberry  is  far  before  any  other  in  point  of  fla- 
vour, and,  if  transplanted  into  gardens,  may  for  two  or  three 
years  answer  very  well ; and  if  not  too  highly  manured, 
preserve  their  flavour  and  increase  their  size.  But  new 
plants  must  be  obtained,  every  two  or  three  years,  from  the 
woods,  to  make  new  plantations,  or  they  will  degenerate. 

Soil  and  manure, — The  soil  proper  for  this  last  mentioned 
variety,  as  well  as  all  others,  is  light,  warm,  and  gravelly ; 
and  the  manure  to  be  applied  should  be  exclusively  vegeta- 
ble, and  not  animal  manure.  The  usual  practice  is  to  ma- 
nure the  ground  with  rotten  dung,  with  a view  to  increase 
the  size  and  quantity  of  fruit ; but,  in  doing  this,  the  fla- 
vour of  the  fruit  is  destroyed  in  proportion  to  the  richness 
of  the  soil.  Besides,  high  manuring  produces  strong  vines 
and  little  fruit.  Rotten  leaves,  decayed  wood,  ashes,  in 
small  quantity,  mixed  with  other  vegetable  substances  in  a 
compost  heap,  wilt  make  better  manure  for  strawberries 
than  any  animal  substance  whatever.  As  the  vines  which 
bear  this  fruit  require  great  moisture  to  bring  the  fruit  to 
its  proper  size,  the  soil  and  situation  in  which  they  are 
placed  must  not  be  too  dry. 


STRAWBERRY. 


287 


} Propagation, — The  usual  time  for  transplanting  straw- 
berry-plants  is  August.  That  time  is  chosen  because  they 
have  tiien  done  bearing,  and  have  made  offsets,  if  the  sea- 
son has  been  favourable,  of  strong  plants,  set  from  their 
runners.  Plantations  made  at  this  season  will  bear  some 
fruit  the  next  summer.  But,  if  you  can  get  good  vigorous 
plants  in  May  of  the  preceding  season,  1 prefer  to  plant 
then,  as  it  saves  a year,  nearly,  the  plants  being  ready  to 
bear  abundantly  the  next  year. 

Gardeners  have  different  habits  and  opinions  as  to  trim- 
ming the  plants  when  they  are  put  out.  Some  cut  off  all 
the  old  leaves,  and  preserve  only  the  naissant  leaves  in  the 
centre  of  the  plant.  Others  take  off  the  dead  or  decayed 
leaves  only,  and  plant  with  all  the  old  healthy  leaves  on 
the  plant.  This  last  plan  is  highly  recommended  by  the 
Abbe  Rozier,  but,  so  far  as  my  experience  goes,  I have 
found  the  first  mentioned  course  the  best.  Many  people 
cut  the  roots  in  before  they  put  them  into  the  ground  : all 
dead  substances  should  be  cut  off,  but  not  the  roots.  When 
the  plants  are  put  out,  they  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds, 
and  the  ground  should  be  kept  loose  about  them.  If  the 
plants  are  strong,  put  but  one  to  form  the  stools ; if  weak, 
put  two. 

As  regards  the  distance  at  which  plants  should  be  set, 
cultivators  differ.  The  common  red  strawberry,  which  is 
found  in  all  our  gardens,  may  be  put  eight  inches  apart  in 
rows  nine  inches  or  a foot  from  each  other,  and  allowed  to 
form  a matted  bed  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  wide, 
with  a foot-path  of  a foot  wide  between  them.  But  tb 
larger  and  finer  sorts  should  be  planted  in  stools  in  betnr 
four  and  a half  feet  wide,  with  a path  of  fifteen  inches  or 
more  between  the  beds.  In  these  beds  the  plants  should 
be  set,  by  a line,  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  both 
ways,  taking  care  to  set  them  in  quincuncial  order,  and 
to  keep  them  from  running  together. 

The  objection  generally  made  to  this  mode  of  cultivation 
is,  that  the  fruit  is  exposed  to  be  injured  by  lying  on  the 
ground,  where  it  is  bruised  and  covered  with  dirt  every 
time  it  rains.  This,  however,  may  be  prevented  by  a little 
care.  In  some  parts  of  Europe,  where  moss  is  plenty,  it 
is  collected  and  put  round  the  stools,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
fruit  from  lying  on  the  ground,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
prevent  the  moisture  round  the  plant  from  evaporat- 
ing. 

In  some  places,  where  moss  is  not  to  be  got,  straw  is  used 


288 


SUNFLOWER. 


for  the  same  purpose ; hence  the  English  name  of  straw- 
berry.* But  I think  that  leaves  of  trees  that  have  been 
collected  in  the  spring,  and  kept  under  cover,  are  better 
than  either,  and  particularly  the  oak-leaf ; because,  when 
they  are  no  longer  wanted  to  protect  the  fruit,  and  keep 
the  moisture  in  the  ground,  they  can  be  dug  in  round  the 
stpols,  where  they  serve  as  most  excellent  manure  for  thivS 
delicious  fruit. 

The  strawberry  may  also  be  propagated  by  seeds. 
Knight,  in  making  experiments,  with  a view  of  ascer- 
taining whether  most  of  the  sorts  would  not  breed  togeth- 
er indiscriminately,  raised  above  four  hundred  varieties, 
some  very  bad,  but  the  greater  part  tolerably  good,  and  a 
few  very  excellent.”  The  fruit  of  above  a dozen  sorts  was 
sent  to  the  Horticultural  Society  [in  London]  in  August, 
1818,  and  found  of  various  degrees  of  excellence.  The 
seeds,  if  sown  immediately  after  gathering,  will  produce 
plants  which  will  come  into  bearing  the  following  year. — 
Loudon- 

Use. — The  fruit  is  fragrant,  (whence  fragaria^)  deli- 
cious, and  universally  esteemed.  It  consists  almost  entirely 
of  matter  soluble  in  the  stomach,  and  neither  there  nor 
when  laid  in  heaps,  and  left  to  rot,  does  it  undergo  the  ace- 
tous fermentation.  Hence  it  is  very  nourishing,  and  may 
be  safely  eaten  by  gouty  and  rheumatic  persons.  ‘ In  ad- 
dition to  its  grateful  flavour,  the  subacid  juice  has  a cooling 
quality,  particularly  acceptable  in  summer.  Eaten  either 
alone,  or  with  sugar  and  cream,  there  are  few  constitutions 
with  which  strawberries,  even  when  taken  in  large  quanti- 
ties, are  found  to  disagree.  Further,  they  have  properties 
which  render  them,  in  most  conditions  of  the  animal  frame, 
positively  salutary ; and  physicians  concur  in  placing  them 
in  their  small  catalogue  of  pleasant  remedies.  They  dis- 
solve the  tartareous  incrustations  of  the  teeth.  They 
promote  perspiration.  Persons  afflicted  with  the  gout  have 
found  relief  from  using  them  very  largely ; so  have  patients 
in  cases  of  the  stone  ; and  Hoffman  states,  that  he  has 
known  consumptive  people  cured  by  them.  The  bark  of 
the  root  is  astringent.’ — Abercrombie.'^’^ — Loudon. 

SUNFLOWER. — Helianthus  annuus. — This  plant  is  a 
native  of  South  America,  but  naturalized  and  become  com- 


^ This  name  is  common  in  all  the  northern  countries,  while  in  France,  and 
countries  south,  it  is  said  they  take  their  name  from  their  fla»  our,  or  the  botaui 
•al  name  fragaria. 


TANSY TARRAGON. TEASEL. 


289 


mon  ill  the  United  States.  It  is  easily  propagated  in  any 
common  soil,  either  by  sowing  the  seeds,  or  by  slips  or  off- 
sets from  the  roots. 

From  a paper  on  the  subject  of  sunflower-oil,  in  the  first 
vol.  of  Trans.  Ainer.  Phil.  Society.^  it  apjiears  that  one  bush- 
el of  seed  yields  three  quarts  of  oil ; and  that  this  quantity 
of  seed  is  produced  from  one  hundred  plants,  set  about 
three  feet  apart,  in  the  same  manner  that  Indian  corn  is 
planted.  The  oil  is  thin,  clear,  and  of  an  agreeable  taste. 

The  process  for  expressing  the  oil  is  the  same  as  that  of 
making  linseed-oil. 

TANSY. — Tanacetum  vulgare. — Tansy  is  a perennial 
plant,  which  grows  without  cultivation  in  Great  Britain  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

Culture. — Tansy  may  be  propagated  in  spring  or  autumn 
by  rooted  slips,  or  by  dividing  the  roots  into  several  sets  : 
plant  them  in  any  compartment  of  the  kitchen  or  physic 
garden,  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  asunder.  The 
plant  continues  for  several  years,  producing  abundant  tufts 
of  leaves  annually.  As  they  run  up  in  strong  stalks  in 
summer,  these  should  be  cut  down  to  encourage  a pro- 
duction of  young  leaves  below  on  the  stem.  To  have 
young  tansy  in  winter,  plant  some  roots  either  in  a hot- 
bed, or  in  pots  placed  therein,  or  in  a pinery,  or  forcing 
house,  at  any  time  from  November  to  March. — Abercrombie. 

Use. — The  young  leaves  are  shredded  down,  and  em- 
ployed to  give  colour  and  flavour  to  puddings ; they  are 
also  used  in  omelets  and  other  cakes,  and  were  formerly  in 
much  repute  as  a vermifuge.” — Loudon. 

TARRAGON. — Artemisia  dracunculus. — Culture. — This 
is  a perennial  plant,  which  may  be  propagated  from  seed, 
or  from  slips  or  offsets,  in  the  same  manner  that  tansy, 
mint,  &c.  are  cultivated. 

Use. — “ Tarragon  is  frequently  used  in  salads,  especially 
by  the  French,  to  correct  the  coldness  of  other  herbs. 
The  leaves  make  an  excellent  pickle  : they  have  a fragrant 
smell  and  aromatic  taste.  The  use  of  them  in  Persia  has 
ever  been  general,  at  meals,  to  create  an  appetite.  The 
famous  vinegar  of  Maille,  in  France,  owes  its  superior  fla- 
vour to  this  plant,  which  is  now  common  in  Pennsylvania.” 
— Dr.  Mease. 

TEASEL. — Dipsacus. — The  teasel  or  jollier’s  thistle  is 
an  herbaceous  biennial,  growing  from  four  to  six  feet  high, 
prickly  or  rough  in  the  stem  and  leaves,  and  terminating  in 
rough,  burr-like  heads  of  flowers. 

25 


290 


THYME. 


Propagation  and  culture, — This  plant  is  propagated  by 
sowing  the  seeds  either  in  March  or  April,  upon  a soil  that 
has  been  well  ploughed,  and  it  is  observed  that  good  v/heat- 
land  is  well  adapted  for  the  production  of  teasels.  The 
ground  being  ploughed  and  made  fine,  from  one  peck  to 
two  of  seed  is  generally  sown  upon  an  acre,  and  harrow- 
ed in  with  a light  harrow.  When  the  plants  are  up,  hoe 
them  in  the  same  manner  as  practised  for  turnips,  thinning 
out  the  plants  from  time  to  time,  till  eventually  they  are  left 
about  a foot  apart.  They  should  be  kept  clear  from  weeds, 
and  the  second  year  after  sowing,  the  plants  will  shoot  up 
stalks  with  heads,  which  are  collected  in  August,  as  soon  as 
they  begin  to  turn  brown.  They  are  then  expc«>ed  daily  to 
the  sun  till  they  become  perfectly  dry,  care  being  taken 
to  protect  them  from  rain.  They  are  to  be  collected  as 
they  turn  brown  and  ripen,  and  not  all  at  once. 

Use, — This  plant  is  cultivated  in  great  quantities,  in  the 
west  of  England,  for  raising  the  nap  on  woollen  cloths,  by 
means  of  the  crooked  awns  or  chaffs  upon  the  heads  ; which 
in  the  wild  sort  are  said  to  be  less  hooked.  For  this  pur- 
pose they  are  fixed  round  the  circumference  of  a cylinder, 
which  is  made  to  turn  round,  and  the  cloth  is  held  against 
them.  For  a more  detailed  account  of  the  culture  of  this 
plant,  see  Encyc,  of  Agr,  p.  852,  N,  E.  Farmer^  vol.  vi. 
pp.  307,  322. 

THYME. — Thymus  vulgaris, — There  are,  according  to 
Loudon,  two  species  of  thyme,  cultivated  for  culinary  pur- 
poses, the  common  and  the  lemon  thyme. 

Common  or  garden  thyme  is  a native  of  Spain  and  Italy. 
Of  this  there  are  two  varieties,  the  broad  and  the  narrow- 
leaved, besides  the  variegated,  grown  for  ornament. 

Lemon  thyme — T,  cltriodorus — is  a very  low  evergreen 
shrub,  trailing,  and  seldom  rising  above  four  or  six  inches  in 
height.  It  is  distinguished  by  its  strong  smell  of  lemons. 

Cidture, — The  plant  is  best  raised  from  seed.  Sow  as 
early  in  the  spring  as  the  season  will  permit,  in  a bed  or 
border  of  light,  fine  earth,  either  broad-cast,  scattered  thin, 
and  raked  in  lightly,  or  in  small,  shallow  drills,  six  inches 
asunder.  Tlie  after-culture  is  simple,  and  similar  to  that  of 
other  sweet  herbs,  such  as  marjoram,  sage,  &c.  In  soils 
which  are  cold,  stiff,  or  moist,  it  does  not  thrive;  its 
branches  become  ragged, its  leaves  few,  and  its  flowers,  and 
their  peculiar  aroma,  feeble  and  faded.” — Armstrong, 

Use,—^‘  The  young  leaves  and  tops  are  used  in  soups, 
stuffings,  and  sauces.  For  these  purposes,  the  broad-leaved 


TO  MATO . TURN  I P . 


291 


common  is  generally  preferred  ; but  the  ikvour  of  the  yel- 
low is  much  liked  in  peculiar  dishes.” — iMudoiu  “All 

the  parts  of  this  plant,  but  particularly  the  calyx  of  its 
flower,  yields  an  essential  oil,  yellow  and  odorous,  and 
highly  charged  with  camphor.  In  the  kitchen,  it  is  used 
as  an  ingredient  in  sauces  and  stuffings,  and  in  what  are 
technically  called  forced  meaisd^ — Arrv^trong, 

TOIMATO. — Planum  hjcopersicum. — “ This  plant  is  of 
the  same  family  with  the  potato,  and,  like  it,  is  a native  of 
Southern  America.  It  has  several  species,  two  of  which 
fall  under  our  notice  as  garden  vegetables,  and  are  distin- 
guished from  each  other  only  by  a difference  of  size.  The 
smaller  is  held  to  be  the  parent  plant,  and  has  the  advan- 
tage of  ripening  sooner,  and  better  resisting  cold  weather. 
To  have  an  early  crop,  sow  the  seeds  in  a dry  and  warm 
soil,  and  sheltered  situation,  in  October,  and  cover  the  bed 
with  straw,  or  stable-litter,  during  the  winter.  For  sum- 
mer and  fall  use,  sow  again  in  May,  and  water  freely.  If 
the  soil  and  situation  be  favourable,  and  the  culture  proper, 
the  product  will  be  great  The  distance  between  the  plants 
should  not  be  less  than  two  feet.” — Armstrong. 

Use. — “ When  ripe,  the  fruit,  which  has  an  acid  flavour, 
is  put  into  soups  and  sauces,  and  the  juice  is  preserved  for 
winter  use,  like  ketchup  ; it  is  also  used  in  confectionary, 
as  a presei^e,  and,  when  green,  as  a pickle.  Though  a 
good  deal  used  in  England,  in  soups,  and  as  a principal  in- 
gredient in  a well  known  sauce  for  mutton,  yet  our  estima- 
tion and  uses  of  the  fruit  are  nothing  to  those  of  the  French 
and  Italians,  and  especially  the  latter.  Near  Rome  and 
Naples,  whole  fields  are  covered  with  it;  and  scarcely  a 
dinner  is  served  up,  in  which  it  does  not,  in  some  way  or 
other,  form  a part.” — Loudoun. 

TURNIP. — Brassica  rapa. — Russell’s  Catalogue  con- 
tains the  following  varieties : 


Early  v/hite  Dutch ; 

Early  garden  stone ; 

White  flat,  or  globe  5 
Green  rounds 
Red  round ; 

Swanks  egg ; 

Large  English  Norfolk , 
Long  tankard,  or  Hanover  j 


Long  yellow  French  5 
Yellow  Dutch  5 
Yellow  Maltese; 

Yellow  Aberdeen  5 
Yellow  stone ; 

Yellow  Swedish,  Russia,  or  ruta 
baga; 
l>edham. 


The  first  three  sorts  arc  fittest  for  early,  first  succession, 
and  main  crops.  The  French  turnip,  according  to  Loudon, 
is  of  excellent  flavour,  and  is  in  high  repute  in  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland.  The  Swedish,  for  its  large  size  and 


292 


TURNIP. 


hardy  nature,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  fields  for  cattle 
it  is  also  occasionally  raised  in  gardens  for  the  table,  to  use 
in  winter  and  spring. 

Seed  estimate, — For  a seed-bed  four  feet  and  a half  by 
twenty-four,  the  plants  to  remain  and  be  thinned  to  seven 
inches’  distance,  half  an  ounce. 

Time  of  sowing, — Make  first  a small  sowing  of  some  of 
the  early  sorts,  in  the  last  fortnight  of  Ma‘rch  or  the  first  days 
of  April,  for  turnips  in  May  and  June;  but,  as  these  will 
run  to  seed  the  same  season,  make  a larger  sowing  about 
the  middle  of  April.  The  first  considerable  sowing  may  be 
about  the  middle  or  towards  the  end  of  May,  for  roots  to 
draw  young  about  the  end  of  June,  and  in  full  growth  in 
July  and  August.  The  principal  sowing  should  be  about 
the  middle  of  July.  ‘‘  Doing  it  on  a set  day  is  ridiculous ; 
for  a time  should  be  chosen  when  the  ground  has  the  right 
degree  of  moisture  to  make  the  seed  vegetate;  and  if  this 
should  happen  a week  earlier  or  a fortnight  later  than  the 
usual  time,  it  need  not  be  regretted ; but  the  opportunity 
ought  to  be  embraced.” — Abercrombie,  They  may  be  sown 
to  advantage  in  New  England  as  late  as  the  first  week  in 
August ; and  those  which  are  put  into  the  ground  so  late 
will  be  less  liable  to  be  injured  by  insects  than  when  sown 
earlier. 

Soil  and  situation, — Sand  or  gravel,  with  a mixture  of 
loam,  produce  the  sweetest  and  best  flavoured  roots.  It 
should  be  made  fine,  but  not  too  rich,  lest  the  turnips  be 
rank  and  ill  tasted.  Ground  which  has  been  newly  cleared 
from  the  forest  yields  the  largest  and  sweetest  roots ; and 
on  such  spots  there  is  least  danger  from  insects.  “ Next 
to  new  land,  swarded  ground  is  to  be  chosen  for  a crop  of 
turnips ; and  the  way  to  prepare  it  is,  to  plough  it  pretty 
deep  in  the  spring,  and  fold  it  by  turning  in  the  stock  for  a 
good  number  of  nights ; for  there  is  scarcely  any  of  our 
fields  sufficiently  rich  to  produce  turnips  without  manuring; 
and  folding  hitherto  appears  to  be  the  best  method  of  en- 
riching the  ground  for  this  purpose.  It  should  be  well 
harrowed  as  often  as  once  a week,  while  the  folding  is  con- 
tinued, to  mix  the  excrements  of  the  cattle  with  the  soil.” 
— Deane. 

Process  in  sowing^  and  precautions  against  the  fly, — “ Let 
the  ground  be  well  broken  by  regular  digging,  and  neatly 
levelled  to  receive  the  seed.  Procure  bright,  well  dried 
seed.  At  a season  when  the  turnip-fly  is  not  apprehended, 
the  seed  may  be  put  into  the  ground  without  any  prepara- 


TURNIP. 


293 


tioTij  either  alone  or  mixed  with  a little  sand  ; but  in  the 
hot  weather  of  summer,  it  is  advisable  to  use  some  cheap 
and  eflectiial  preventive  of  the  fly.  It  appears  from  a trial 
of  Knight,  at  the  suggestion  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  that 
lime  slaked  with  urine,  and  mixed  with  a treble  quantity 
of  soot,  if  sprinkled  in  with  the  seed  at  the  time  of  sowing, 
will  protect  the  seeds  and  germs  from  the  ravages  of  this 
pernicious  insect ; but  this  antidote  cannot  be  conveniently 
applied  unless  the  sowing  be  in  drills.  A yet  simpler 
remedy,  found  by  Mean  to  be  perfectly  successful,  is,  to 
steep  the  seed  in  sulphur-water,  putting  an  ounce  of  sul- 
phur to  a pint  of  water,  which  will  be  sufficient  for  soaking 
about  three  pounds  of  seed.” — Abercrombie, 

The  method  of  sowing  is  either  broad-cast  or  in  drills. 
In  the  former  mode,  Abercrombie  directs  to  allow  half  an 
ounce  of  seed  for  every  one  hundred  square  feet.  Deane 
says,  the  quantity  of  seed  for  an  acre  is  never  less  than  one 
pound — more  frequently  a pound  and  a half,  and  sometimes 
two.  In  sowing  by  broad-cast,  the  seed  may  be  covered  by 
drawing  a light  harrow  backward,  that  is,  wrong  end 
foremost,  to  prevent  the  tines,  which  are  generally  set  some- 
what pointed  forward,  from  tearing  up  the  sods,  and  bury- 
ing the  seed  too  deep.”  If  sowed  in  rows,  the  drills  may 
be  an  inch  deep,  and  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  asunder. 

Subsequent  culture. — As  soon  as  the  plants  have  rough 
leaves,  about  an  inch  broad,  hoe  and  thin  them  to  six  or 
eight  inches’  distance,  cutting  up  all  weeds.  As  the  tur- 
nips increase  in  the  root,  a part  may  be  drawn  young,  by 
progressive  thinnings,  so  as  to  leave  those  designed  to  reach 
a full  size  ultimately  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart. 

Taking  and  preserving  the  crop. — In  England  they  feed 
the  turnips  off  the  g-round  with  sheep,  or  draw  them  up  for 
neat  cattle,  through  the  winter,  as  they  are  wanted ; but, 
in  this  country,  they  must  be  harvested  in  autumn,  about 
the  end  of  October,  or  even  earlier  in  some  seasons  and 
places,  and  stored  and  saved,  as  directed  for  preserving 
other  roots.  See  page  50. 

To  save  seed. — Some  of  the  best  roots  of  the  middling 
size  should  be  planted  early  in  the  spring,  in  a good  spot, 
free  from  shade.  They  should  be  in  rows,  eighteen  inches 
asunder,  and  the  ground  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  till 
the  seed  is  ripe.  Stakes  and  laths  may  be  needful  round 
the  outside,  to  keep  the  branches  from  falling  to  the  ground 
before  the  seed  is  fully  ripe.” — Beane.  “ It  is  preferable, 

however,  to  procure  turnip-seed,  as  indeed  that  of  most 
25  * 


294 


VINE. 


Other  vegetables,  from  the  regular  seedsmen  ; as  the  seed 
farmers  have  opportunities  of  keeping  the  sorts  distinct,, 
wliich  cannot  be  within  the  precincts  of  a walled  garden.” 
— Loudon. 

Use, — The  common  culinary  uses  of  the  turnip, 
boiled,  mashed,  &c.,.  are  too  w’^ell  known  to  need  any  notice. 
We  shall  mention  some  uses  not  so  common. 

‘‘For  feeding  horses, — These,  when  fed  on  turnips,  are 
induced  to  eat  the  barn-chaff,  and  other  dry  food,  with  a 
good  appetite — are  kept  healthy,  and  will  work  without 
corn. 

“ For  feeding  cows, — To  make  sweet  and  well  tasted  but- 
ter from  the  milk  of  co^vs  fed  on  turnips,  let  the  milk  ves- 
sels be  kept  constantly  clean  and  well  scalded  with  boiling 
water,  before  using.  When  the  milk  is  brought  into  the 
dairy,  to  every  eight  quarts  mix  one  quart  of  boiling  water; 
then  put  up  the  milk  into  the  bowl  to  stand  for  cream. 

“As  a substitute  for  bread, — When  the  dearness  of  all  sorts 
of  corn  occasioned  many  poor  people  in  Essex  [England] 
to  make  bread  of  turnips,  they  took  the  peeled  roots,  and 
boiled  them  in  water  till  they  were  soft ; then,  strongly 
pressing  out  their  juices,  they  mixed  them  with  their  w^eight 
of  wheat-meal ; and  adding  salt,  yeast,  and  warm  water,, 
they  kneaded  k up  as  other  paste  ; which,  having  lain  a 
little  while  to  ferment,  they  ordered  and  baked  as  common 
bread.” — Gleanings  in  Husbandry, 

VINE. — Vitis, — Many  gentlemen  in  this  neighbour- 
hood have  given  considerable  attention  to  the  cultivation 
of  grapes  in  the  open  air  upon  open  trellises,  and  some 
have  succeeded  remarkably  well,  although  they  have  had 
to  contend  with  the  many  difficulties  whicli  that  delicate 
and  delicious  fruit  is  subject  to  in  this  climate. 

Having  given  some  personal  attention  to  this  fruit  for 
several  years,  I am  satisfied  tliat  it  can  be  raised  in  great 
perfection,  and  with  little  trouble  to  the  cultivator,  if  he  set 
out  right  in  the  first  instance,  and  follow  up  the  system 
prescribed  with  attention  and  oare. 

Although  most  men,  wffiio  have  any  knowledge  in  horti- 
culture, know  more  or  less  respecting  the  mode  of  cultivat- 
ing this  plant,  yet  there  are  many  new  beginners,  v/ho 
may  collect  some  hints  from  these  notes,  which  may  aid 
them  in  the  outset ; and  many  gentlemen,  wdio  have  been 
long  in  the  habit  of  raising  grapes  in  their  gardens,  may  ob- 
tain some  information  as  to  the  means  of  preserving  the 
plants  from  the  destructive  insect  which  has  of  years 


VINE  295 

attacked  the  vines,  and  destroyed  the  promise  of  their  early 
growth  and  the  fair  appearance  of  their  fruit. 

The  best  treatises  on  the  subject  of  raising  grape-vines 
recommend  planting  the  cuttings  in  pots ; but  in  this  country 
it  is  entirely  unnecessary,  as  the  plants  may  be  easily  raised 
in  the  open  grounds  with  little  trouble  and  no  expense  ; and 
if  we  can  add  to  our  collection  of  fine  fruits  one,  which,  in 
sickness  as  well  as  in  health,  is  the  most  refreshing  and 
nutritive  of  any  that  we  possess,  with  little  expense,  and 
even  with  profit  to  the  cultivator,  we  shall  do  a great  good. 

The  best  mode  of  raising  the  plants  is  by  cuttings  taken 
from  the  vines  at  the  fall  pruning,  and  preserved  in  earth 
till  spring.  These  may  be  made  either  of  one  eye  or  bud, 
or  of  four  or  five,  attached  to  a small  portion  of  the  two 
years’  old  wood,  forming  a cutting  in  the  shape  of  a small 
mallet 

The  year. — They  may  be  raised  in  a small  nursery- 

bed,  prepared  of  a good  light  soil — set  in  the  ground  six 
inches  distant  from  each  other,  with  the  rows  wide  enough 
apart  to  permit  them  to  be  weeded  with  a narrow  hoe ; or, 
they  may  be  put,  in  the  first  instance,  where  they  are  to  be 
reared,  and  left  to  grow,  at  the  distance  of  five,  six,  or  seven 
feet,  or  more,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  cultivator.  In 
this  latter  case  there  should  be  three  cuttings  put  into  each 
spot,  six  inches  apart,  to  ensure  the  setting  of  one.  When 
this  is  ascertained  with  certainty,  the  two  weakest  may  be 
fvithdrawn,  leaving  the  best  of  the  three  to  grow.  If  the 
cuttings  be  of  one  eye  each,  they  should  be  from  the  last 
year’s  growth,  and  a small  piece  of  the  branch,  an  inch  longy 
should  be  left  attached  to  the  bud,  and  extending  half  an 
inch  on  each  side  of  it.  These  should  be  planted  two 
inches  below  the  surface,  with  the  bud  uppermost,  and  a 
small  stake  placed  by  the  side  of  them,  that  they  may  not 
be  disturbed.  If  the  cuttings  are  of  several  eyes,  tht^y 
should  be  laid  in  the  ground  sloping,  leaving  one  eye  level 
with,  or  only  just  above,  the  surface.  They  should  be  kent 
moist,  but  not  wet,  as  this  will  rot  them.  A spot  which 
receives  the  morning  sun  till  eleven  o’clock,  and  not  after- 
wards, is  the  best  for  a nursery-bed  for  them ; but,  for  per- 
manency, they  should  be  planted  where  they  will  receive 
the  sun  longest ; and,  in  this  case,  they  should  be  shaded  at 
noon  day  until  they  have  entirely  put  out.  One  bud  only 
should  be  allowed  to  push  from  the  cutting  the  first  year  ; 
the  plant  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  ; the  earth  kept 
light  around  it,  and  as  soon  as  the  shoot  has  attained 


296 


VINE 


Strength  enough  to  produce  laterals,  they  should  be  rubbed 
out,  and  the  shoot  tied  to  a small  stake,  by  which  means  it 
will  gain  firmness,  and  the  admission  of  the  sun  and  air  to 
the  shoot  will  prepare  it  to  bear  the  frost  of  the  fall,  and 
prevent  its  imbibing  the  moisture  which  it  would  otU^r 
wise  be  subject  to,  when  covered  with  earth  in  the  winter. 
By  the  first  of  November  the  shoots  may  be  cut  down  to 
two  eyes,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  month,  if  it  be  dry 
weather,  they  may  be  covered  over  with  earth,  forming  a 
slope  to  cast  off  the  wet  and  prevent  the  rains  from  pene- 
trating— -as  the  drier  the  plant  is  kept  during  the  winter,  in 
the  better  state  it  will  b5  in  the  succeeding  spring. 

The  2d  year, — The  plants  should  not  be  uncovered  in 
this  climate  till  the  middle  of  April.  Those  from  the  nur- 
sery should  now  be  transplanted  to  the  places  where  they 
are  to  remain  ; a shoot  from  each  eye  should  be  permitted 
to  push,  but  as  soon  as  you  have  ascertained  which  of  the 
two  will  be  the  strongest  and  the  best  situated,  you  will 
preserve  that,  and  rub  out  the  other.  The  shoot  preserved 
you  will  be  careful  to  tie  up  to  a small  stake,  as  soon  as  it 
has  length  enough  for  this  purpose,  to  prevent  its  being 
broken  by  the  wind  or  other  casualty.  During  the  summer, 
the  laterals  from  the  four  or  five  lowest  buds  must  be  rub- 
bed out,  and  the  shoot  be  carefully  protected  by  being  kept 
tied  every  eight  or  ten  inches. 

The  next  fall  you  may  cut  this  shoot  down  to  two  buds, 
(not  counting  the  one  in  the  crotch  of  the  plant  between 
the  old  and  new  wood,)  and  cover  over  as  before. 

The  3d  year, — You  will  allow  shoots  to  push  from  both 
the  eyes,  and  suffer  them  to  grow,  taking  care  of  them  as 
recommended  above ; but  the  bud  in  the  crotch  must  be 
rubbed  out.  This  year  you  must  rub  out  the  laterals  from 
the  five  lowest  buds,  and  nip  in  the  other  laterals  to  one 
eye,  so  that,  if  the  plant  grows  luxuriantly,  the  sap  may  burst 
from  the  buds  of  the  laterals,  and  not  from  those  of  the 
main  branch,  as  it  would  do  if  the  vine  was  dressed  too 
close.  Be  careful  to  keep  the  branches  tied  up,  that  they 
may  not  be  broken.  In  November,  cut  down  the  two 
branches  as  follows : the  most  feeble  of  the  two,  to  two 
buds,  to  produce  wood  branches  the  succeeding  season ; 
and  the  strongest  to  three  buds,  for  fruit  branches,  and 
cover  them  as  usual. 

The  4th  year, — If  you  keep  your  vines  properly  dressed, 
you  may  have  your  first  fruits  without  injury  to  your  plants, 
After  this,  the  system  to  be  pursued  mUvSt  depend  on  the 


VINE. 


297 


strength  of  your  vines,  and  this  will  depend  on  the  goodness 
of  the  soil  and  the  care  you  take  of  your  plants.  But,  as  a 
general  rule,  the  following  points  must  be  attended  to 

1.  The  number  and  length  of  your  fruit  branches  must 
always  depend  on  the  strength  of  your  plant ; the  wood 
branches  are  always  to  be  cut  down  to  two  eyes. 

2.  No  more  branches  should  be  left  on  the  vine  than  it 
can  nourish  well  and  abundantly;  this  will  depend  on 
its  age,  and  the  soil  in  which  it  grows. 

3.  The  branches  should  be  cut  in  alternately  for  wood 
and  fruit  branches,  observing  to  cut  for  wood  branches  as 
low  down  on  the  plant  as  possible,  so  as  to  renew  your 
wood  near  the  bottom  annually.  No  shoots  should  be  per- 
mitted to  grow  from  the  old  wood,  unless  wanted  for  this 
purpose. 

4.  No  more  shoots  should  be  permitted  to  grow  than  can 
be  laid  in  clear,  and  handsome,  and  without  confusion,  on 
the  trellis,  and  so  as  to  admit  the  sun  and  air  freely  among 
the  branches. 

5.  The  laterals  should  be  rubbed  out  of  the  wood 
branches  six  or  eight  eyes  high,  and  those  that  are  per- 
mitted to  remain  should  be  pinched  into  one  bud.  The 
laterals  on  the  fruit  branches  should  be  rubbed  out  from  the 
insertion  of  the  shoot  to  the  uppermost  fruit  inclusive,  and 
the  others  pinched  in  as  above.  If  the  shoots  are  very 
strong,  the  upper  laterals  may  be  allowed  to  grow,  to  take 
up  a greater  portion  of  the  sap ; but  this  should  not  be 
done  unless  there  is  danger  of  the  eyes  bursting  in  the 
main  shoots.  Be  careful  always  to  keep  the  shoots  tied  up 
near  their  top. 

6.  Never  leave  more  than  five  good  eyes  on  a fruit-bear- 
ing branch,  unless  your  vine  is  confined  to  a narrow  space, 
and  you  are  obliged  to  preserve  only  two  or  three  fruit 
branches ; in  this  case  the  length  of  the  branch  must  cor- 
respond to  the  nourishment  it  will  receive  from  the  plant. 
Select  the  roundest  and  fairest  branches  for  fruit,  and  the 
lowest  and  most  feeble  for  wood.  The  closer  the  buds  are 
together,  or  the  shorter  the  joints  of  the  branch,  the  better 
they  are  for  fruit ; these  may  in  general  be  cut  to  three, 
four,  or  five  eyes,  according  to  their  strength.  But  in 
vineries  covered  with  glass,  where  two  fruit-bearing 
branches  only  are  left  on  strong  vines,  twenty,  thirty,  and 
forty  buds  are  sometimes  left  on  fruit  branches. 

The  foregoing  rules  will  be  sufficient  for  any  one  to 
build  up  a vineyard  sufficiently  large  to  supply  bimseK.  his 


298 


VINE. 


friends,  and  the  market,  with  grapes.  But,  to  promote  and 
forward  their  maturity  and  size,  the  following  course  may 
be  pursued : — 

The  first  of  July  you  will  be  able  to  see  the  state  of  your 
fruit,  which  will  be  just  formed.  At  this  time  select  the 
highest  fruit  branches,  and  those  which  have  the  finest 
appearance  of  fruit  upon  them,  and  perform  the  following 
operation  on  the  two  years’  old  wood,  from  which  these 
branches  proceed,  taking  care  not  to  cut  below  any  of  the 
wood  branches. 

Take  a pruning  knife  with  a smooth  edge  and  hawk’s 
bill,  and  pass  it  round  the  branch  where  the  bark  is  clear 
from  knots,  cutting  deep  enough  to  reach  the  sap-wood  of 
the  plant ; at  a quarter  or  three  eighths  of  an  inch  below 
the  first  cut  make  another,  running  parallel  with  the  first ; 
then  make  a perpendicular  cut  through  this  section  of  the 
bark  the  same  depth,  and  you  may  take  out  the  ring  of 
baric  clear  from  the  branch.  This  will  not  prevent  the  sap 
rising  into  the  upper  part  of  the  branch,  but  it  will  prevent 
its  descending  below  this  cut,  by  which  means  it  will  be 
retained  in,  and  distributed  throughout,  the  upper  part  of  the 
branch,  in  a greater  portion  than  it  could  otherwise  be,  and 
the  branches  and  fruit  will  both  increase  in  size  much  more 
than  any  of  those  that  are  not  thus  treated,  and  the  matu- 
rity of  the  fruit  will  be  advanced  very  much. 

This  has  been  denominated  girdling.  If  the  plant  is 
very  vigorous  and  the  season  very  favourable,  the  wound 
^fill  soon  be  closed,  so  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  open  it 
a second  time.  This  process  does  not  injure  the  plant,  as 
you  only  girdle  the  fruit-bearing  branches,  which  you  would 
in  any  case  cut  out  at  the  fall  pruning,  to  make  room  for 
the  branches  which  you  have  been  bringing  forward  to  give 
you  fruit  the  succeeding  year.  This  may  be  kept  up  from 
year  to  year,  and  give  you  a succession  of  ripe  fruit  from 
the  first  of  September  to  the  close  of  the  season.  The 
fruit  on  those  branches  which  are  not  girdled  will  ripen  the 
latest,  of  course,  but  neither  these,  nor  those  which  have 
been  girdled,  should  be  shortened,  as  is  customary  on  vines 
not  thus  treated. 

By  this  practice,  which  was  first  suggested  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London  a few  years 
since,  and  first  brought  into  use  in  this  country  with  success 
by  the  corresponding  secretary  of  the  Mass.  Agr.  Soc.  I have 
raised  grapes  in  the  open  air  this  year,  the  bunches  of  which 
weighed  from  eight  to  twenty-eight  ounces ; and  the  ber- 


VINE. 


299 


ties  measuring  from  two  to  three  inches  in  circumference. 
On  one  vine  which  I planted  a few  years  since — a cutting  in 
the  spot  where  it  now  grows — I had  seventy  hunches  of  fine 
chasselas,  weighing  from  eight  to  eighteen  ounces  each. 

But  the  grape-vines  have  of  late  years  been  attacked  by 
a small  insect  which  makes  its  appearance  first  in  June, 
but  is  most  abundant  in  August.  This  insect,  if  left  to  in- 
crease, destroys  the  vegetating  principle  in  the  leaf,  and 
the  plant  languishes,  the  fruit  mildews,  and  the  labour  and 
care  of  the  cultivator  are  lost.  Some  gentlemen  have  aban- 
doned their  vines  in  consequence  of  the  depredations  of 
this  insect,  and  others,  with  great  labour  and  expense  of 
time,  have  attempted,  but  in  vain,  to  destroy  them  with  al- 
kalies and  tobacco-juice.  This  has,  to  be  sure,  operated  to 
check  them  partially,  but  not  effectually.  To  remedy  this 
evil,  you  have  only  to  make  a small,  light  frame,  twelve  or 
fourteen  feet  long,  in  the  form  of  a soldier’s  tent,  but 
with  hinges  of  leather  where  the  top  joins,  so  that  this  tent 
may  be  shut  up  or  opened  at  the  bottom  to  any  width  you 
may  require,  according  to  the  height  of  your  trellis.  This 
light  frame,  which  should  be  made  of  slats  of  boards  from 
one  to  two  inches  broad,  may  be  covered  with  an  old  sail, 
or  some  cheap  glazed  cotton  cloth,  which  will  stop  the 
smoke,  leaving  cloth  enough  loose  at  each  end  to  close 
over,  and  prevent  the  smoke  from  escaping  when  the  tent 
is  spread  over  the  trellis. 

A few  tobacco-stalks,  moistened  and  put  on  some  coals 
in  a pan,  will  be  sufficient  to  smoke  the  vines  thoroughly ; 
and,  as  the  tent  is  easily  moved  along  the  trellis  on  some 
small  wheels,  one  man  may,  in  a few  hours,  extirpate  this 
enemy  of  the  vineyard.  Vines  that  are  already  attacked  by 
this  insect  to  any  great  degree  should  be  smoked  in  June, 
July,  and  twice  in  August,  or  oftener,  if  you  find  the  insect  is 
not  completely  destroyed. 

The  insects  are  first  seen  on  the  under  part  of  the  leaf, 
without  wings — very  active,  but  easily  destroyed  if  touched. 
They  afterwards  assume  the  winged  state,  when  it  is  very 
difficult  to  get  at  them,  as  they  fly  off  on  the  vines  being 
touched.  They  are  yellow,  striped  with  brown  across  the 
back.  The  moment  the  smoke  ascends,  the  winged  in- 
sects quit  the  leaves,  and  fall  to  the  ground  dead  or  alive  ; 
the  young  ones  perish,  but  the  older  ones  will  revive  if  not 
destroyed  in  their  torpid  state.  To  effect  this,  you  have 
only  to  cover  the  ground  under  the  tent  with  a piece  of  wet 
cloth  before  you  begin  to  smoke,  to  which  they  adhere  un- 


300 


VINE. 


til  the  tent  is  removed,  and  they  are  revived  by  the  atmos- 
pheric air ; to  prevent  which  you  will  roll,  or  twist,  the 
Xiloth  each  time  that  you  remove  the  smoke-house,  or  tent, 
aiKl  replace  it  again  each  time  before  you  smoke,  by  which 
means  they  will  be  effectually  destroyed.  This  simple  and 
cheap  operation  will  keep  your  vines  clear  of  this  trouble- 
some and  destructive  insect,  and  you  may,  if  the  season  be 
warm,  ensure  a good  harvest;  if  otherwise,  you  will  be 
sure,  if  the  vines  be  girdled,  to  ripen  a portion  of  your 
fruit,  at  least. 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX 


The  object  of  this  Calendar  is  little  more  than  to  give  brief  intimations  of 
work  to  l e performed  in  a garden,  together  with  some  approximation  to  the 
lime  of  year  m which  it  should  be  accomplished.  The  figures  refer  to  the  pages 
in  which  further  directions  may  be  found  relative  to  the  operations  adverted 
to.  These  directions  are  intended  for  the  New  England  States,  or  about  the 
latitude  N.  and  the  vicinity,  or  a small  elevation  above  the  sea. 

Allowance  should  be  made  for  elevation  of  site,  as  well  as  for  situation  north 
or  south  of  that  degree.  But  it  is  not  possible^  perhaps,  to  state  what  that  al- 
lowance should  be  with  any  approach  to  precision.  The  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
aspect,  the  exposure,  the  forwardness  or  backwardness,  or  what  may  be  styled 
the  general  character  of  the  season,  are  all  to  be  regarded  j and  require  the  ex- 
ercise of  a sound  discretion  in  the  cultivator,  not  to  be  restricted  by  general 
rules,  which  are  not  liable  to  too  many  exceptions  to  be  noted  in  this  work. 


JANUARY. 

Throughout  New  England  the  temperature  of  the  climate  is  such  as  to  ex- 
clude the  cultivator  from  performing  most  of  the  operations  of  tillage  or  horti- 
culture from  about  the  first  of  December  to  the  latter  part  of  March,  or  the  be- 
ginning of  April.  The  seeds  of  knowledge  may,  however,  be  sown  in  winter, 
and  the  horticulturist  may  cultivate  his  mind  when  his  soil  is  bound  in  frozen 
fetters. 

Provide  a sufficient  quantity  of  bean-poles,  and  pea-rods,  which  you  may  pre- 
serve in  a corner  of  your  wood-house,  or  other  place  suitable  for  your  purpose. 
Many  people,  who  neglect  to  procure  these  implements  in  season,  are  induced, 
by  the  hurry  of  business,  to  permit  their  peas  and  beans  to  trail  on  the  ground, 
in  which  situation  they  will  not  produce,  especially  the  tall  growing  sorts,  one 
third  part  so  many  as  if  they  were  properly  supported  by  poles  and  rods.  The 
length  of  your  pea-rods  should  be  m proportion  to  the  sorts  of  peas  for  which 
you  intend  them,  229.  The  same  kinds  of  rods,  which  the  tail-lowing  peas  re- 
quire, will  answer  for  the  generality  of  running  kidney  beans.  The  Lima  beans 
will  need  strong  poles,  from  eight  to  nine  feet  high.  You  may  now  make  prep- 
aration for  forcing  cucumbers  and  melons,  84, 202. 


FEBRUARY. 

Manure  may  be  carried  into  those  places  where  it  is  needed,  left  in  a heap, 
but  not  spread.  Wherever  and  whenever  the  snow  is  off  the  ground,  rake  to- 

f ether  and  burn  the  haulm,  or  whatever  may  remain  from  the  last  year's  crop. 

'ences  should  be  inspected  and  repaired,  and  seed  rubbed  out  and  cleaned. 
Straw  mats  for  the  hot-beds,  pales, rails,  lattices,  or  trellises  for  espalier  trees,  should 
be  got  in  readiness,  107.  See  that  your  garden  tools  are  in  good  repair,  and 
procure  such  new  ones  as  may  be  necessary.  It  is  now  time  to  set  about  pro- 
curing and  preparing  materials  for,  and  forming  hot-beds,  161.  Clean  trees 
from  moss,  and  protect  them  against  mice  and  rabbits  by  whitewashing  with 
lime,  or  smearing  with  some  composition  which  is  offensive  to  those  vermin. 
Enter  in  earnest  into  the  business  of  forwarding  various  kinds  of  seedling  plants, 
by  artificial  means,  so  that  they  may  have  strong  roots,  and  arrive  at  some  size 
26 


302 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


bv  the  time  they  would  naturally  make  their  first  appearance  above  ground. 
This  may  well  be  done  by  adopting  Mr.  Armstrong’s  method,  with  regard  to 
melons,  202.  Attend  to  your  fi-uit  m your  fruit-room  or  cellar,  on  shelves  or  in 
boxes,  and,  if  necessary,  pick  it  over,  and  cull  out  whatever  is  defective  j wipe 
the  remainder  dry,  and  pack  it  away  anew.  But  if  it  is  put  down  in  some  sort 
of  grain,  dry  sand,  flax-seed  chaff,  or,  what  is  probably  best  of  all,  pulverized 

Elaster  of  Paris,  you  will  not  need  to  meddle  with  it.  You  may  now,  perhaps, 
egin  to  force  asparagus  in  hot-beds,  28.  Sow'  under  glass  cases,  for  transplanting 
or  otherwise,  radishes,  carrots,  small  salads,  peas,  beans,  &c.  Protect  choice 
plants,  which  may  show  a disposition  to  vegetate,  by  matting,  litter,  cases  cf 
wicker,  old  bark,  and  other  proper  means. 


MARCH. 

vLettuce  may  be  sowed  in  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  frost  will  permit,  191. 
It  may  be  sowed  between  vacant  rows,  intended  for  other  plants,  and  pulled  out 
for  use  before  the  other  plants  are  large  enough  to  be  encumbered  by  it.  Early 
peas  cannot  be  planted  too  soon  after  the  ground  is  thawed,  226.  Radishes 
may  be  sowed  as  soon  as  the  seeds  can  be  raked  in.  Sow  cabbages,  cucum- 
bers, melons,  cauliflow'ers,  squashes,  &c.  in  hot-beds,  under  glasses,  &c.,  84, 149, 
202.  Dig  up  vacant  ground,  applying  manure.  Dress  borders,  and  clip  edg- 
ings of  box.  Clean,  relay,  or  make  new  gravel  walks.  Attend  to,  and  turn 
over  compost  beds.  Dress  asparagus  beds,  or  make  new  ones  the  latter  part 
of  this  month  or  the  beginning  of  April,  22.  Select  from  your  cellar  the  oest 
cabbages  with  heads,  and  set  them  in  some  proper  place  to  stand  for  seed.  Set 
the  diftcrent  kinds  remote  from  each  other,  to  prevent  their  mixing  at  the  time 
of  blossoming.  Likewise,  set  some  of  your  best  cabbage  stumps  for  early  salad 
and  greens.  If  the  ground  is  moist,  set  shallow'  j if  dry,  place  them  about  six 
inches  deep.  Small  salading,  such  as  cresses,  80,  81,  mustard,  207,208,  radish, 
260,  &c.,  when  a constant  supply  is  wanted,  should  be  sown  once  a week  or 
fortnight.  Celery,  for  an  early  crop,  may  be  sown  in  this  month,  though  the 
principal  sowing  had  better  be  deferred  till  April,  74.  Artichokes  should  be 
sowed  as  early  as  the  season  will  permit,  18,  and  horse-radish,  159. 


APRIL.. 

In  the  Eastern  States,  generally,  and  in  those  parts  of  the  Middle  States  where 
ifle  ground  is  naturally  somewhat  moist  and  heavy,  this  is  the  month  for  sowing 
4ie  principal  garden  crops.  Sow  the  hardy  kinds  as  soil,  site  and  season  will 
permit,  that  the  plants  may  be  firmly  established  before  they  are  overtaken  by 
the  heat  and  drought  of  summer.  But  a stift’  and  moist  soil  should  never,  on 
ail}'  account,  be  dug,  ploughed  or  harrowed  when  it  is  so  wet  as  to  be  clammy 
and  adhesive.  On  the  other  hand,  a light,  sandy  soil  will  be  meliorated  by  be- 
ing hoed,  or  otherwise  wrought  on  while  moist. 

Earth  of  a consistence  that  will  hold  water  longest  withotU  becoming  hard 
taken  dry,  is  that  of  all  others  the  best  adapted  for  raising  the  generality  of 
plants  in  the  greatest  perfection.  The  great  art  of  improving  sandy  and  clay 
soils  is  to  give  to  the  former  such  dressings  of  clay,  cow-dung,  and  other  kinds 
of  manure,  as  will  have  a tendency  to  bind  and  make  it  more  compact,  and, 
consequently,  more  retentive  of  moisture  5 and,  to  the  latter,  coats  of  sandy 
earth,  pond  mud,  horse  dung,”  &c. — M’ Mahon. 

Sow  artichokes,  18,  asparagus,  22,  horse,  or  garden  beans,  33,  kidney  beans, 
36,  beets,  40,  the  last  of  this  month,  or  the  first  of  next,  borecole,  51,  Brussels 
sprouts,  55}  sow  cabbage  seed,  60,  set  out  cabbage  plants,  61,  sow  cardoons,  67, 
carrots,  68,  cauliflowers,  72,  celery,  74,  coleworts,  79,  succession-crops  of  cresses, 
80,  81 , cucumbers  in  hollowed  turnips  placed  in  a hot-bed,  87,  or  in  pots  un- 
der hand-glasses,  &c. } propagate  fruit-trees  by  cuttings,  95.  You  may  set  out  a 
few  dandelion  plants  in  ^^our  garden,  97,  and  let  us  know  how  you  succeed  in 
attempting  to  domesticate  them.  Look  out  for,  and  destroy  insect^  169 ; sow  a 
little  early  summer  endive,  105,  fennel,  108  j propagate  garlic,  136,  leeks,  190, 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


303 


•Cttuce,  191,  marjoram,  197,  onions,  213,  parsley,  222,  parsncp  224,  successive 
Tops  of  diferent  sorts  of  peas,  226,  potatoes,  248,  radish,  2o0,  safje,  265,  sal- 
iiiy,  266,  savory,  266,  sea-kale,  267,  skirret,  281. 


MAY. 

You  may  now  sow  most  or  all  the  articles  mentioned  in  the  Calendar  for  the 
ast  month,  either  as  first  or  succession-crops.  Plant  your  cucumbers,  82,  and 
nelons,  198,  for  a general  crop  in  the  open  ground  about  the  20th  5 also,  squash- 
es, pumpkins,  and  gourds  5 likewise,  Indian  corn  for  an  early  garden  crop, 
164.  Plant  your  bush-beans  and  pole-beans,  for  your  principal  crop,  at  any 
ime  when  most  convenient  during  the  month,  36.  It  is  recommended  to  set 
he  poles,  and  then  plant  the  beans  round  the  poles.  Weed  and  thin  vour  nd- 
v^ancing  crops  of  radishes,  261.  Transplant  radishes  for  seed,  262.  Sow  suc- 
cession-crops of  spinach,  282.  Carrots  may  be  sown  in  the  Eastern  States  in 
,he  forepart  of  the  month,  68.  Weed  and  thin  beets,  carrots,  parsneps,  onions, 
early  turnips.  Sow  more  turnips  of  the  early  kinds  for  crops  in  succession. 
Such  sowing  is  best  performed  in  the  first  week  of  the  month,  in  order  that  the 
=x)Ots  may  have  time  to  grow  to  a good  size  before  they  are  overtaken  by  sum- 
ner  heat  and  drought.  Early  cauliflower  plants,  as  they  advance  in  growth, 
;hould  have  earth  drawn  up  about  their  stems,  and  be  watered  in  dry  weather. 
SiTou  will  do  well  to  sow  peas  for  succession-crops,  at  least  twice  this  month,  220. 
You  may  set  out  or  transplant  early  lettuce.  Sow  eis  many  of  the  sorts  of  small 
<alading  as  you  may  need  for  market  or  family  consumption.  Now  is,  per- 
iiaps,  as  proper  a time  as  any  in  the  year  for  pruning  fruit-trees,  257.  Tiie 
reason  for  pruning  is  immediately  before,  or  commensurate  with,  the  rising  of 
the  sap.  Let  your  ducks  have  constant  employment  as  vermin  pickers,  102. 
Attack  insects  by  sprinkling  over  them,  by  means  of  a syringe,  watering-pot, 
or  gcirden  engine,  simple  water,  soap-suds,  decoctions  of  tobacco,  of  elder, 
&c.  &c.  169. 

JUJVE. 

Melons  and  cucumbers,  which  have  hitherto  been  protected  by  glasses  or  pa- 
5er  frames,  may  now  be  exposed  to  the  open  air.  If  the  season  oe  at  all  clry, 
/our  vegetables,  particularly  your  cucumbers,  will  need  water.  [See  Intro- 
iuction.]  Keep  your  crops  clean,  by  hand-weeding  and  hoeing,  as  directed 
page  158.  About  the  last  of  the  month,  you  may  sow  crops  of  melons  and  cu- 
cumbers for  pickling.  Thin  forward  melon  plants,  leaving  only  two  or  three  in 
a hill,  201.  Attend  to  your  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants,  as  well  as  your 
beans^  &c.  and  see  that  they  are  not  destroyed  by  the  cut  worm.  If  you 
perceive  any  plants  injured,  open  the  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  plant,  and  you 
will  never  fail  to  find  the  worm  at  the  root,  within  four  inches.  Kill  him,  and 
you  will  save  not  only  the  other  plants  of  your  garden,  but  probably  many  thou- 
sands in  future  years.’^  Hoe  and  bush  your  late  peas ; plant  more  potatoes, 
succession-crops  of  kidney  beans,  36,  peas,  226,  small  salads  and  lettuce  every 
week  or  ten  days.  Thin  out  and  earth  up  all  your  plants  j remember  that 
frequent  hoeing  is  both  rain  and  manure  to  your  vegetables  in  dry  weather.’^ 
Celery  plants  may  now  be  planted  out  in  trenches,  74.  When  the  plants  have 
grown  to  the  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  draw  earth  about  them,  breaking  it 
fine.  This  should  be  done  in  dry  weather,  being  careful  not  to  bury  the,  heart. 
Plant  out  cabbages,  cauliflowers,  broccoli,  &c.  in  moist  or  cloudy  weather,  but 
not  when  the  ground  is  wet  and  heavy,  61.  Cut  and  dry  such  herbs  as  nave 
come  to  maturity,  for  winter  use.  You  may  as  well  dry  and  pulverize  some 
kinds,  as  directed  p.  205.  Look  over  your  grafted  trees,  and  you  may  ascer- 
tain whether  the  scion  has  united  with  the  stock.  Take  off  the  clay,  and  loosen 
the  bandages  of  such  ^afts  as  have  succeeded,  and  tie  weak  grafts  and  dan- 
gling ifaoots  from  budded  stocks  to  neat  stakes.  Rub  off  all  superfluous,  irregu- 
lar, or  ill  placed  shoots  or  suckers.  Where  your  fruit-trees  appear  to  be  over- 
loaded with  fruit,  pick  off  a part,  and  carefully  gather  all  that  which  has  fallen 
and  give  to  your  swine,  in  order  to  destroy  the  curculio,  176. 


304 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


JUI.Y, 

Clean  and  prepare  your  ground  where  your  early  crops  of  peas,  spiirage, 
cauliflowers,  and  cabbages  grow,  and  all  other  vacant  spots,  to  cultivate  diere- 
on  such  plants  as  are  proper  to  supply  your  table,  in  autumn  and  winter,  with 
later-grown  productions.  You  may  continue  to  sow  crops  of  small  salading 
every  eight  or  ten  days,  as  directed  in  former  months  5 but  they  should  now  be 
sown  on  shady  borders,  or  else  be  shaded  by  mats,  occasionally,  from  the  mid- 
day sun,  and  frequently  watered,  both  before  and  after  the  plants  appear  above 

f round.  You  may  now  plant  out  your  celery  plants  in  trenches,  74,  unless  you 
ave  already  performed  that  operation,  as  directed  last  month.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  July,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end  of  the  first  week  in  August,  you  may 
sow  turnips,  292.  Thin  and  transplant  such  lettuces  as  were  sown  last  month, 
and  sow  more  lettuce-seed  in  the  beginning,  middle,  and  last  week  of  this 
month,  in  order  to  have  a constant  supply  for  the  table,  191.  Sow  likewise 
radishes,  261,  and  in  the  last  week  of  this  month  a good  crop  of  spinach  may  be 
sown  for  autumn  use  j it  will  not  then  be  so  liable  to  run  to  seed  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding months.  It  is  a good  practice  to  sow  early  kinds  of  cabbages,  60^  about 
this  time,  for  a supply  of  young  greens  during  autumn.  Collect  all  kinds  of 
seeds  as  they  come  to  maturity,  cutting  off  or  pulling  up  the  stems  with  the 
seeds  attached,  as  they  ripen.  Spread  them  in  some  airy  place  under  cover, 
turning  them  now  and  then,  that  the  seeds  may  dry  and  harden  gradually,  and 
be  careful  not  to  1^  them  so  thick  as  to  hazard  their  heating  and  fermenting. 
When  they  are  sufficiently  dry,  beat  out  and  clean  the  seeds,  and  deposit  them 
in  bags  or  boxes  till  wanted.  Give  water  to  such  plants  as  require  it,  but  let 
this  be  always  done  in  the  evening,  that  it  may  be  of  use  to  the  vegetables  be- 
fore the  sun  shall  cause  it  to  evaporate. 

You  may  now  inoculate  or  bud  vour  fruit-trees,  165,  and,  where  it  can  be 
done  without  inconvenience,  it  will  be  well  to  turn  swine  into  your  orchard  to 
eat  the  fallen  and  decayed  fruit,  and  thus  destroy  the  insects  wnich  it  contains. 
If,  however,  this  cannot  well  be  done,  or  you  have  not  swine  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  devour  all  your  fallen  fruity  it  will  be  well  to  gather  and  carry  it  from  the 
ground  before  the  insects,  which  inhabit  it,  make  their  way  into  the  earth,  and 
make  you  destructive  visitations  another  season. 


AUGUST. 

Keep  all  your  crops  clear  from  weeds,  using  the  hoe  where  safe  and  conve- 
nient 5 otherwise  make  claw-hoes  of  your  hands,  and  weed-extracting  nippers  of 
your  thumb  and  fore-fingers.  Pull  up  the  haulm  of  peas,  beans,  &c.,  and  re- 
move it  to  your  compost  oed ; bury  it  between  rows  of  plants,  or  throw  it,  to- 
gether with  all  weeds,  &c.  to  your  swine,  that  your  premises  may  have  a neat 
appearance.  Cut  such  herbs  as  are  now  in  flower,  to  distil,  or  to  dry  for  win- 
ter use,  being  careful  to  do  it  when  they  are  dry,  and  spread  them  in  a dry, 
shady  place  5 for,  if  they  are  dried  in  the  sun,  they  will  shrink  very  much,  turn 
black,  and  prove  of  little  value.  Your  dung-hills  and  compost-  heaps  should, 
during  the  summer  montns,  be  kept  free  from  weeds  5 for  if  the  seeds  are  per- 
mitted to  ripen  and  fall,  the  dung,  when  carried  into  the  garden,  will  dissemi- 
nate weeds  innumerable.  Attend  to  plants  set  out  for  seed,  and  put  stakes 
to  such  as  need  support.  This  month,  as  well  as  the  latter  part  of  July,  is  the 
proper  season  for  inoculating  or  budding,  165.  M'Mahon  says,  Cherries, 

{)lums,  or  any  other  fruit-trees,  may  be  budded  in  August,  if  the  bark  parts  free- 
y froia  the  stock.  Pears  ought  to  be  inoculated  the  early  part  of  the  month,  or 
while  the  sap  flows  freely  5 but  the  peach,  nectarine,  almond,  and  apple,  will 
succeed  any  time  between  the  first  of  August  and  twentieth  of  September, 
provided  tlie  stocks  are  young  and  vigorous/' 

Preserve  peach,  plum,  cherry,  and  apricot  stones,  &c.  to  sow  for  raising 
stocks  to  bud  and  graft  on.  These  may  either  be  sown  immediately,  or  kept  in 
common  garden  earth  or  moist  sand.  But  it  will  be  necessary  to  sow  them 
before  the  stones  open,  and  the  radicles  begin  to  shoot  5 otherwise  many  of  them 
will  be  broken  or  torn  in  the  process  of  sowing.  Every  day  they  are  kept  ou 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


306 


of  ground  is  an  injury  to  them ; and  if  they  remain  in  a dry  slate  till  spring, 
very  few  will  vegetate  till  a year  after,  and  the  greater  number  not  at  all. 
Continue  to  collect  and  preserve  seeds  as  directed  last  month.  Sow  onions  to 
stand  over  winter,  218  •,  likewise,  cauliflowers,  72. 


SEPTEMBER. 

Hoe  and  thin  your  growing  crops  of  spinach,  283.  In  the  first  week  of  this 
month,  sow  a full  crop  of  the  prickly-seeded  kind  for  winter  and  spring  use,  283. 
And,  at  the  same  time,  you  should  sow  a good  supply  of  the  early  short-top, 
white  and  red  turnip-rooted  and  salmon  radishes,  260.  Earth  up  celery  as  it 
a^ivnnees  in  growth,  but  be  careful  to  avoid  covering  the  hearts  of  the  plants. 
This  work  should  be  done  in  a dry  day.  See  that  you  do  not  bruise  or  injure  the 
stalks  5 for  if  they  are  crushed  or  wounded,  they  will  be  subject  to  rot,  75. 
Gather  all  kinds  of  seeds  as  they  ripen,  which  may  be  necessary  for  the  ensu- 
ing season.  Towards  the  latter  end  of  the  month,  you  may  safely  transplant 
all  kinds  of  hardy  perennial,  aromatic,  and  medicinal  herbs,  which  will  thus 
become  well  rooted  before  winter.  This  work  should,  if  possible,  be  done  in 
moist  weather.  Pull  and  preserve  your  ripe  onions,  219,  and  sow  more  to 
stand  over  winter,  218.  Protect  your  grapes  and  other  fruit  against  wasps. 
This  may  be  done  by  hanging  up  phials  of  honied  or  sugared  water  near  the 
fruit  you  wish  to  defend  from  their  attacks,  in  which  many  of  the  tiny  depre- 
dators will  be  caught  and  destroyed.  Thoroughly  clean  from  weeds  all  the 
seed-beds  and  young  plantations  of  trees,  shrubs,  &c.  Gather  cucumbers  and 
mangoes  for  pickling  before  they  spot.  Sow  cauliflowers  about  the  20th,  72. 


• OCTOBER. 

The  young  cabbage  plants,  produced  from  seeds  sown  last  month,  and  in- 
tended for  early  summer  cabbages,  should  be  transplanted  into  the  beds  in 
W'hich  they  are  to  remain  during  winter,  60. 

Prepare  a bed  for  them,  the  width  of  your  garden  frame,  in  a warm,  well- 
sheltered  place,  where  the  sun  has  the  greatest  power ; yet  be  careful  never  to 
admit  the  direct  sunshine  on  the  plants,  when  in  a frozen  state.  When  you 
have  no  glasses,  the  plants  may  be  protected  during  winter  by  boards  or  mats, 
giving  them  air  in  mild  weather.  Cauliflowers  sown  in  August  or  September 
should  be  raised  carefully,  and  protected,  during  the  cold  season,  in  garden 
frames,  with  boards,  mats,  &c.,  or  perhaps  some  may  survive  if  set  in  open 
borders,  72,  or  they  may  be  set  in  pots,  73.  Weed  and  thin  your  late  crops  of 
spinach,  leaving  the  best  plants  at  the  distance  of  three,  four,  or  five  inches 
asunder,  283.  Early  in  the  month,  hoe  and  earth  up  the  late-planted  crops  of 
cabbages,  broccoli,  and  borecole,  cauliflowers  and  other  plants  of  the  brassica 
genus.  Towards  the  end  of  the  month,  if  the  stalks  of  asparagus  turn  yellow, 
cut  them  close  to  the  earth  5 clear  the  beds  and  alleys  from  weeds,  and  carry 
them  with  the  stalks  off  the  ground.  It  will  then  not  be  amiss  to  cover  the 
beds  and  alleys  with  old  litter,  well  trodden  dowm,  to  be  removed  in  the  spring 
Or  you  may  apply  manure  now,  instead  of  in  spring,  as  directed  page  25.  Cut 
down  all  decayed  flower  stems,  and  shoots  of  the  various  kinds  of  aromatic, 
pot  and  medicinal  herbs,  close  to  the  plants  5 clear  the  beds  from  weeds  and 
litter,  and  carry  the  whole  off  the  ground.  Onions  m.ay  now  be  planted  out 
to  raise  seed,  instead  of  setting  them  in  the  spring,  as  directed  p.  219.  The 
seeds  of  dill,  skirret,  rhubarb,  sea-kale,  may  now  be  sowmj  for,  if  kept  out  of 
ground  till  spring,  many  of  them  will  not  vegetate  till  a year  after  5 but  when 
sown  in  October  or  November,  if  the  seeds  are  fresh  and  perfect,  they  will  vege- 
tate in  the  April  following.  Begin  to  take  up  and  secure  potatoes,  255,  beets, 
49,  carrots,  parsneps,  turnips,  Jerusalem  artichoke,  &c.,  Give  a general 
hoeing  and  weeding  to  all  your  crops,  and  carry  the  weeds  out  of  the  gar- 
den. Such  spaces  of  ground  as  are  now  vacant  should  be  dunged,  dug,  or 
trenched,  and  thus  have  the  advantage  of  a winter  fallow,  and  that  exposure 
to  frost,  which  will  reduce  it  to  fine  tilth,  and  destroy  worms,  the  larvce  of 
insects,  &c.  The  old  beds  of  strawberries  should,  some  time  in  this  month,  be 
26 


306 


CALENDARIAL  INDEX. 


cleaned  from  weeds,  and  the  vines  or  runners  taken  off  close  to  the  plants. 
Then,  if  there  be  room,  loosen  the  earth  to  a moderate  depth  between  die 
plants,  taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  roots.  And  if  the  plants  are  in  beds  with 
alleys  between,  line  out  the  alleys,  and  let  them  be  dug  a moderate  depth, 
breaking  the  earth  very  fine,  and  spreading  a sufficiency  of  it  over  the  beds, 
between  and  round  the  beds,  taking  care  not  to  bury  their  tops.  A slight  top 
dressing  of  compost,  such  as  described  p.  286,  may  now  be  applied.  It  may  now 
be  time  to  gather  and  preserve  apples  and  pears,  13,  though  it  is  best  to  let  them 
remain  on  the  trees  as  long  as  the^^  are  safe  from  frost,  15.  If  you  are  no  t ap- 
prehensive of  the  depredations  of  mice,  rats,  squirrels,  &c.  you  may  sow  mo 
stones  of  plums,  peacnes,  nectarines,  apricots,  &.C.5  or  you  may,  il  } cu  think  it 
more  prudent,  preserve  them  in  sand  till  March  or  April. 


NOVEMBER. 

Gather  from  your  garden,  before  the  hard  frosts  commence,  all  those  fruits 
of  your  labours,  whicli  you  wish  to  preserve  through  the  winter,  not  forget- 
ting winter  squashes.  Take  up  and  preserve  cabbages,  as  directed  p.  65.  r re- 
serve your  celery,  75.  You  may  gather  a part  in  dry  weather,  and  pack  it  in 
boxes  in  dry  sana,  and  place  the  boxes  in  a warm  cellar,  leaving  the  tops  and 
leaves  open  to  the  air.  Those  cabbage  and  cauliflower  plants,  which  you  mean 
shall  stand  through  the  winter  in  frames,  should,  during  the  continuance  of 
mild  weather,  be  allowed  every  advantage  of  free  air,  to  inure  them,  by  de- 

frees,  to  bear  cold.  Take  the  glasses  off  entirely,  in  the  warm  part  of  the 
ay,  but  place  them  on  again  at  night,  and  in  wet  or  cold  weather.  If  your 
beets,  turnips,  parsiieps,  &c.  are  not  secured,  take  them  up,  and  preserve 
them,  as  directed  last  month.  You  may  now  sow  the  seeds  of  rhubarb,  sea- 
kale,  skirrets,  parsneps,  and  many  other  kinds,  which  are  somewhat  slow  jn 
vegetating,  and  they  will  come  forward  early,  and  grow  vigorously  in  the 
spring.  In  the  beginning  of  this  month,  you  may  manure  and  trench  the  ground 
which  is  intended  for  early  crops,  and,  if  it  be  of  a stiff,  heavy  nature,  lay  it  up 
in  ridges,  to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  winter  frosts.  You  may  now  sow  early 
peas,  to  come  up  in  the  spring,  if  you  can  preserve  them  against  mice,  227. 
This  is,  perhaps,  as  eligible  a period  as  any  for  the  planting  of  apple-trees, 
and  other  fruit-trees,  17,  220,  or  sowing  seeds  in  a nursery,  208,  210.  Lay 
light  litter  of  some  kind  a good  thickness  over  the  roots  of  the  more  tender 
and  choice  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  to  protect  them  from  frost. 


DECEMBER. 

The  severity  of  the  weather  in  this  month  generally  allows  but  little  to  be 
done  in  the  Middle  and  Northern  States.  Should  the  season  permit,  you  may 
perform  any  of  the  operations  directed  for  last  month,  which  remain  unfinished. 
If  the  weather  continues  open,  carry  out  and  spread  manure,  and  trench  the 
ground,  as  directed  for  the  last  month.  Provide  from  the  woods,  &c.  pea- 
sticks  and  bean-poles,  of  suitable  lengths  and  sizes,  as  directed  in  January. 
Collect  all  your  old  sticks  and  poles,  which  are  still  fit  for  use,  and  place  them 
tlogether  with  your  new  ones  under  cover,  to  prevent  their  rotting.  Be  careful 
to  shut  the  frost  out  of  the  apartments  in  which  you  have  stored  your  fruit  for 
winter  and  spring  use.  Examine  the  fruit  which  you  have  on  shelves  in  cellars, 
once  every  ten  days,  and  take  away  any  that  you  find  tainted.  Repair  all 
decayed  trellises,  espaliers,  &c.  Procure  stakes  and  other  materials  which 
may  be  wanted  in  a more  busy  season. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Apple  . . . 

13 

A pple-Tree  . 

17 

Apricot  , , 

, . 

18 

Artichoke  . 

18 

Asparagus  . 

• • 

22 

Balm  . . • 

^8 

Barley  . . 

, , 

29 

Bean — Vida f aba  . 

33 

Bean,  Kidney, 

. . 

36 

Beet  . . . 

40 

Bene  Plant  . 

51 

Borecole  . . 

51 

Borer  . . . 

52 

Broccoli  . . 

52 

Brussels  Sprouts 

55 

Buckthorn  • 

• • 

56 

Cabbage  . , 

59 

Canker-Worm 

67 

Caraway  , 

, , 

67 

Cardoon  . . 

67 

Carrot  . , 

68 

Caterpillar  . 

72 

Cauliflower  , 

, , 

72 

Celery  . . 

74 

Chamomile  , 

76 

Cherry-Tree 

, , 

77 

Chervil  . . 

. , 

79 

Chive  . . . 

79 

Colewort  . . 

79 

Coriander 

79 

Cress,  Water, 

80 

Cress,  Garden, 

81 

Cucumber 

82 

Curculio  . . 

92 

Currant  . , 

92 

Cuttings  . , 

• • 

95 

Dandelion 

97 

Dibble  . . 

98 

Dill  . . . 

98 

Drains  . . 

99 

Duck  . . . 

- • 

102 

; 

103 

103 

Elecampane 

104. 

Endive  . . 

105 

Espaliers  . . 

107 

Fennel  . . . 108 

Flowers,  Ornamental,  109 
Fruits 128 


Garlick  ....  136 
Gooseberry  . . . 137 
Gourd  ....  142 
Grafting  ....  143 
Green-House  . . 151 


Hawthorn  . . . 153 
Heading  down  Fruit- 
Trees  ....  156 
Hedges  ....  156 
Hoeing  ....  158 
Horse-Radish  . . 159 
Hot-Bed  ....  161 
Hot-House  . . . 163 
Hyssop  ....  163 


Inarching  . . , 164 
Indian  Corn  . . . 164 
Inoculation,  or  Bud- 
ding ....  165 
Insects  ....  169 


Jerusalem  Artichoke  182 


Landscapes  and  Pic- 


turesque  Gardens 

184 

Lavender  . . . 

187 

Layers  .... 

188 

Leaves  .... 

188 

Leek 

190 

Lettuce  .... 

191 

Locust-Tree  . . 

193 

Love-Apple  . . . 

196 

Madder  .... 

196 

Mangel  Wurtzel  . 

197 

Marjoram  . . . 

197 

Melon  .... 

198 

Mint 

204 

Mulberry  . . . 

205 

Mushroom  . . . 

205 

Mustard  .... 

207 

Nectarine 

Nurseiy 


Oak 

Okra  . . . 
Onion  . . . 
Orchard  * . 


Parsley  . . 
Parsnep  . . 
Pea  . . , 
Peach-Tree  . 
Pear-Tree  . 
Pepper,  Red, 
Plum-Tree  . 
Potato  . . 
Pruning  . . 
Pumpkin  . . 

Quince  . . 


Radish 
Rhubarb  . 
Roller 
Rose  . . 
Rosemary 
Rue  , . 


Sage  . . 
Salsify 
Savory  . 
Sea-Kale 
Silk  . . 
Skirret 
Spinach  . 
Squash 
Strawberry 


Tansy  • 

Tarragon 

Teasel 

Thyme 

Tomato  . 

Turnip 

Vine 


208 

208 


212 

213 

213 

220 


222 

224 

226 

232 

241 

246 

246 

243 

257 

258 


259 


260 

262 

264 

264 

264 

265 


266 

266 

266 

267 

268 
281 
282 

284 

285 


289 

289 

289 

290 

291 
291 


294 


SEED  ESTABLISHMENT 


The  proprietor  of  this  work  takes  the  liberty  to  inform  his  friends 
and  the  public,  that  he  has  established  a Warehouse  for  every  kind 
of  Seeds,  suitable  for  cultivation  in  the  United  States,  the  British 
Provinces,  or  the  West  India  Islands  ; comprising  an  extensive  varie- 
ty of  grass  seeds,  the  most  common  as  well  as  the  rarer  soru  ; seeds 
of  native  American  forest  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers ; kitchen  garden 
vegetables  ; medicinal,  pot,  and  aromatic  herbs  ; fruits,  esculent  roots, 
ornamental  flowers,  &c. ; all  of  which  are  disposed  of  at  wholesale  and 
retail,  at  fair  prices. 

The  greatest  care  has  been  taken  at  this  Establishment  to  have  such 
seeds  only  as  can  have  the  utmost  reliance  placed  on  their  purit}  and 
freshness.  They  are  not  collected  promiscuousl}^,  but  arc  raised  ex- 
pressly for  the  proprietor  by  gentlemen  of  skill  and  responsible  char- 
acter. Some  few  varieties  of  seed,  which  cannot  be  raised  to  advan- 
tage in  this  country,  are  from  the  first  Establishments  in  Europe,  on 
whose  veracity  and  faithfulness  full  confidence  can  be  placed. 

Connected  with  the  Seed  Trade,  we  have  a large  assortment  of  the 
most  approved  Books  on  Agriculture,  Horticulture,  Gardening  and 
Botany ; and  can  supply  Agricultural  Libraries  and  others  with  books, 
not  usually  found  elsewhere,  on  favourable  terms. 

The  smallest  order  from  the  country  for  seed^  plants,  books,  &c., 
will  meet  prompt  attention.  Orders  for  seeds,  &c.  should  be  address- 
ed to  ‘‘  G,  C.  Barrett fProjyrietor  of  the  JS'ew  England  Farmer  Seed 
Store,  JVo.  52,  JVorth  Market  Street,  Boston^ 

The  following  comprises  a list  of  the  principal  seeds  : 


KITCHEN  GARDEN  VEGETABLES. 


ARTICHOKE. 
Green  globe 

ASPARAGUS. 
Devonshire 
Gravesend 
Large  white  Read- 
ing 

BEANS. 

Early  mazagan 
Broad  Windsor 
Sword  long  pod 
Green  nonpareil 

Dwarf  Beans. 
Early  yellow  cran- 
berry* 

Early  'Mohawk* 
Early  yellow  6 weeks 
Early  dun-coloured* 
Early  China* 

Largo  white  kid- 
ney* 

Canadian 
White  cranberry* 
Red  cranberry* 
Marrow* 

Rob  Roy 
Bonavista 


Pole,  or  running 
Beans. 

Large  white  Lima 
Saba,  white  and 
speckled 
Scarlet  runners 
Dutch  case-knife 
Red  cranberry* 
While  cranberry* 
Yard  long,  or  aspar- 
agus* 


BEET. 

Early  blood  turnip- 
rcoted 

Early  white  scarcity 
Long  blood-red 
Orange  turnip-rooted 
Mangel  wurtaal 
Sir  John  Sindair’s 
Green,  {for  stews  or 
soups) 

French  sugar,  or  am- 
ber beet 

BORECOLE. 

BRUSSELS 

SPROUTS. 


BROCCOLI. 
Early  white 
Early  purple 
Large  capo 

CABBAGE. 
Early  Salisbury 
dwarf 
Early  York 
Early  Dutch 
Early  sugar-loaf 
Early  London  Bat- 
tersea 

Largo  Bergen,  or 
great  American 
Russian 
Early  emperor 
Early  Wellington 
Largo  late  drumhead 
Late  imperial 
Late  sugar-loaf 
Large  green  glazed 
Tree,  or  1000  head- 
ed 

Large  Scotch,  (Jbr 
cattle) 

Green  globe  Savoy 
Red  Dutch,  {for pick' 
ling) 

I^arge  cape  Savoy 


Yellow  Savoy 
Turnip-rooted,  w 
Arabian,  {above 
ground) 

Turnip-rooted,  {be- 
low grovnd) 

Chou  de  Milan 

CARDGON. 

CARROTS. 
Early  horn 
Long  orange 
Altringham,  {a  supe- 
rior sort) 
Blood-red 
Lemon 

Krcamer,  {for  table) 

CAUI.TFLOWER. 

Early 

Late 

CELERY. 
White  solid 
Rose-colourod  solid 
Italian 

Celeriac,  or  turnip 
rooted 

CHERVIL 


Best  string  beans 


BarreWs  Catalogue  of  Seeds. 


CHIVES,  or  GIVES. 

COLEAVORT,  or 
COLLARDS. 

CORN  SALA^  01 
VETTICOST. 

CRESS. 

Curled  or  popper- 
grass 

Proad-lcaved  garden 
Water 

CUCUMBER. 
Early  frame 
Green  clus^r 
Long  prickly 
Short  prickly 
Long  green  Turkey 
Long  white  Turkey 
Long  white-spined 
Small  girkin  or  West 
India,  (pickling) 

ENDIVE,  or  SUC- 
CORY. 

Green  curled 
White  curled 
Broad-leaved  Bata- 
vian, (for  winter) 

GARDEN  BUR- 
NET. 

GARLICK  SETS. 

INDIAN  CORN. 
Early  golden  Si- 
oux, (inpens  in  10 


Early  Canadian 
Early  Jefferson 
Sweet,  or  sugar,(&e5t 
for  boiling  ears) 
Large  southern 
horse-tooth 
Large  flour  white 
Nonpareil,  or  pearl, 
(curious) 

Mottled,  (curious) 
KALE. 

Green  curly  Scotch 
Purple  curled 
Sea 

LEEK. 

Large  Scotch 
London 

LETTUCE. 
Early  curled  Silesia 
Large  green-head,  or 
cabbage 


Royal  Capo,  (superi- 
or quality) 

India  (very  fine) 
Imperial 
Hardy  green 
Brown  Dutch 
Grand  admiral 
Tennis-ball,  or  rose 
Drumhead 
Magnum  bonum  cos 
Brighton  cos,  (fine) 
Ice  cos 

White  cos,  or  loaf 
Green  cos 

MELON. 
Green  citron  1 
Murray^s  pine-  | ^ 

PeS  I 

Nutmeg  > 

Minorca  J 

Cassabar 
Ijarge  cantaloupe 
Pomegranate,  or 
musk-scented 
Carolina  water 
Long  Island  do. 
Apple-seeded  do. 
(A  few  extra  sorts 
from  Europe) 

MELONGENA,  c 
EGG-PLANT. 
Purple,  (best  for  cu- 
linary purposes) 
White  f (ornamental) 

MUSTARD. 
White,  or  English 
Brown 

NASTURTIUM. 

OKRA. 

ONION. 
White  Portugal 
Yellow 

Genuine  Madeira 
Strasburgh 
Large  red 

PARSLEY. 
Curled,  or  double 
Dwarf  curled,  (very 
much  curled) 
Hamburg,  or  large- 
rooted 

Siberian,  (hardy) 

PARSNEP. 
Large  Dutch,  or 
swelling 
Silver-skin 


PEAS. 

Early  Washington, 
or  true  May  pea, 
(extra  early  and 
Jinef  grows  to  the 
height  of  feet) 
Early  doublo-blos- 
somed,  frame,  (ex- 
tra early  andfine^ 
3feet) 

Early  frame,  (2J 
feet) 

Early  golden  hot- 
spur, (3  feet) 

Early  Charlton,  (3 
feet) 

Dwari  blue  imperial, 
(^feet,  superior) 
New  nonpareil,  (4 
feet) 

Dwarf  blue  Prussian, 

Dwarf  Spanish,  or 
fan,  (1/oof) 

Dwarf  marrowfat, 
(3^/eet) 

Dwarf  sugar,  (eata- 
ble pods,  3 feet) 
Matchless,  or  true 
tall  marrowfat,  (6 
feet)  [rows 

Knight’s  tall  mar- 
Tall  crooked-podded 
sugar,  (eatable 
pods) 

Ladies’  finger  mar- 
rowfat, (very  fine) 

PEPPER. 
Long,  or  Cayenne 
Tomato-shaped,  or 
squash 
Bell 
Cherry 

PUMPKIN. 
Finest  family 
Connecticut  field 
Mammoth  , (these 
have  grown  to 
^6  lbs.  weight) 
Large  cheese 

RADISH. 

Early  frame 
Early  short-top  scar- 
let (superior) 

Long  salmon 
Purple  short-top 
Long  white  summer, 
or  Naples 

Cherry,  or  scarlet 
turnip-rooted 
Violet-coloured  tur- 
nip-rooted 


White  turnip-rooted 

Black  fall,  or  Span- 
ish 

RHUBARB. 

SALSIFY,  or  VEG- 
ETABLE OYS- 
TER. 

SKIRRET. 

SCORZONERA. 

SPINACH,  or  SPIN- 
AGE. 

Round-leaved,  or 
summer 

Prickly,  or  fall 

Holland,  or  Lamb’a 
quarter 

English  patience 
dock, (for  early 


NewZeaiand,(a  val- 
uable new  sort) 

SaUASH. 
Early  bush  summer 
Long  crook-neck,  or 
bell  (white  and  yel- 
low) 

Vegetable  marrow 
Commodore  Porter’s 
Valparaiso 
Canada  crook  neck 
Acorn 

TOMATO,  or 
LOVE  APPLE. 

TURNIP. 
Those  marked  fare 
best  for family  use. 
Early  white  Dutch/ 
Early  garden-stone/ 
Yellow  stone/ 
White  flat,  or 
globe  / 

Green  round 
Red  round/ 

Swan’s  egg/ 

Large  English  Nor- 
folk 

Long  tankard,  oi 
Hanover/ 

Long  yellow 
French/ 

Yellow  Dutch  / 
Yellow  Maltese/ 
Yellow  Aberdeen 
Yellow  Swedish, 
Russia,  Lapland, 
or  ruta  baga 


ESCUL.E1VT  ROOTS  AND  PEANTS. 


Asparagus 
Carolina  sweet  pota- 
to slips 
/hives 
tarly  potatoes,  (very 
^ sorU'" 


English  white  kid- 

Lemon thyme 

ney  potatoes 

Potato  onion 

Garlic 

Red  onion  sets 

Hop 

Sea-kale 

Horse-radish 

Shallots 

Jerusalem  artichoke  1 Torra-croo,  or  Astra- 

gon,  (for  infusing 
into  vinegar) 

Top  or  tree  onion 
Undulated  rhubarb 
C/br  tarts'i 
White  onioo  rar' 


BarreWs  Catalogue  of  Seeds, 


FIE1L.D  AND  GRASS  SEEDS. 

Barley  Field-peas,  white  Red-top  White  Dutch  clover 

Blue  grass  and  green  Red  clover  White  American 

Broom  corn  Havanna  tobacco  Ruta  baga,  Swedish,  clover 

Brown  mustard  Hemp  or  Lapland  tuiuip  Winter  rye 

Buckwheat  Indian  corn,  (of  Sweet-scented  vernal  Wila  succory,  or 

Canary  sorts)  grass  wild  endive 

Cotton  Large  Scotch  cab-  Spring  wheat  Woad 

Dier’s  madder  bage  Spring  rye  White  field  beans 

English  rye  grass  Large  white  Norfolk  Spring  vetches  Weld,  or  Dier’s 

English  rape,  or  turnip  Sweet  potato  slips  weed 

cole  seed  Lentiles  Tall  meadow  oats  White,  or  English 

English  kidney  pota-  Lucerne,  or  French  grass  mustard 

toes  clover  Timothy  or  herd’s  Winter  vetches 

Field  burnet,  (for  Mangel  wurtzel  grass  Yellow  Aberdeen 

sheep)  Millet  Trefoil  or  yellow  turnip 

Flax  Orchard  grass  clover  Yellow  locust 

Fuller’s  teasel  Potato  oats  Virginia  tobacco 

TREE  SEEDS. 

We  keep  a large  assortment  of  fruit  and ‘forest  tree  seeds — particularly  those  of 
native  American  forest  trees  suitable  for  sending  to  Europe — the  names  of  which  it 
is  impracticable  to  insert  here. 

POT  AND  SWEET  HERBS. 

Anise 

Caraway  Garlic  Red  sage*"  Sweet  marjoram 

Common  sage  Lavender  Rosemary  Thyme 

Dwarf,  or  bush  ba-  Officinal  borage  Sweet  basil  Winter  savory 

(very fragrant)  " 


Fenugreek 

Pot  marigold 

Garlic 

Red  sage 

Lavender 

Rosemary 

Officinal  borage 

Sweet  basil 

Officinal  bugloss 

MEDICINAE  HERBS. 

Finochio 

Officinal  cumin 

Henbane 

Palma  Christi,  or 

Horehound 

castor-oil  bean 

Horsemint 

Pennyroyal 

Hyssop 

Peppermint 

Jerusalem  oak 

Purple  fox-glove 

Lovage,  or  livoce 

Rue 

Marsh  mallows 

Saffron 

Meadow  saffron 

Scull-cap 

Moldavian,  or  lemon 

Scurvy- grass 

balm 

Spearmint 

Motherwort 

Spikenard 

Sweet  fennel 
Tansy 

Turkey  rhubarb 
Undulated  rhubarb, 
( for  tarts) 
Virginian  speedwell 
Wild  succory,  or 
wild  endive 
White  officinal  pop* 

Wormwood 


Balm 
Bene 
Boneset 
Bugle  weed 
Burdock 
Chamomile 
Coriander 
CatJiep 
Comfrey 

mi 

Dier’s  woad 
Elecampane 

ANNUAL^  BIENNIAIi,  AND  PERENNIAE  FEOWER- 
SEEDS. 

• Of  these  we  have  more  than  three  hundred  varieties,  the  names  of  which  it  is,  of 
course,  impracticable  to  insert  here. 

BUEBOUS  FEOWER-ROOTS,  <fec. 

Constantly  on  hand,  in  the  season  of  them,  the  largest  variety  of  bulbous  flower- 
roots,  imported  annually  from  Holland,  comprising  the  diflTerent  varieties  of 
Double  and  single] Ranunculus,  (sorts)  Fritillaries,  (sorts)  [Cyclamens,  (o/'so?*ts) 
hyacinths,  named  Anemones,  (ofsoi'ts)  Gladiolus,  (^/  sorts)  Crocus,  (of  sorts) 
Polyanthus  Narcis-  Iris,  (of  sorts)  Lilies,  (o/so?*ts)  Snow-drops,  (double 

BUS,  named  Tube  roses,  (double  Crown  imperials,  (of  and  single) 

Double  and  single  and  single)  sorts)  Star  of  Bothleiicm, 

jonquilles  Amaryiis,  (of  sorts)  Narcissus,  (of  sorts)  (of  sorts) 

Tulips,  (tn  great  ua-  Martagons,  (qf sorts)  Colchicums,  (soi'ts) 
riety) 

We  import  from  Scotland,  every  spring,  an  extensive  collection  of  Scotch  gooseber- 
ry bushes,  with  names  ; also  strawberry  plants,  thorn  quicks,  asparagus  roots  5 and 
keep  on  hand  every  variety  of  seed  or  roots,  that  is  wanted  on  a farm  or  garden. 

As  the  variety  and  quantity  of  seeds  kept  at  this  Establishment  are  by  far  greater 
Ifcau  at  any  other  place  in  Now  England,  orders  for  the  British  Provinces,  the  West 
India  market,  or  the  Southern  States,  can  always  be  executed  with  promjjtness,  at  sat- 
$faetory  prices.  Dealers  in  seeds,  and  country  traders,  supplied,  at  wholesale  or 
©tail,  on  the  best  terms.  The  seeds  are  packed  in  boxes  for  the  country  trade,  in 
anall  packages,  neatly  sealed,  with  the  prices  marked,  and  diroctious  printed  on 
package,  for  their 


NEW  ENGLAND  FARMER. 

Tills  is  a weekly  paper,  devoted  to  agriculture;  gardening,  and  rural  econo* 
my.  It  is  conducted  by  Mr.  Fessenden^  the  author  of  Uie  New  American 
Gardener,  who  is  assisted  by  various  agricultural  writers,  and  by  the  observa- 
tions of  the  best  practical  farmers  and  gardeners  in  New  England.  It  is  printed 
in  a quarto  form,  paged,  making  a volume  of  416  pages  annually,  to  which  a 
titl.  : nge  and  index  are  furnished  gratis.  It  is  recommended  to  all  farmers, 
who  wi.^li  for  a weekly  journal  which  contains  a variety  of  articles  on  agricul- 
ture, horticulture,  the  state  of  the  markets,  crops,  &c.  It  is  published  at 
per  annum,  from  w'hich  a discount  of  60  cents  is  made,  if  paid  in  advance.  A 
copy  will  be  sent  gratis  to  any  person  who  may  wish  to  examine  it. 

ItT’This  Journal  has  received  the  unsolicited  recommendation  of  all  the 
princi} ; 1 Agricultural  Societies  in  New  England,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick  : from  wliich  the  following  is  selected : 

At  a meeting  of  the  Worcester  County  Agricultural  Society,  held  al 
Worcester,  it  was  voted  unanimously,  as  the  sense  of  the  Board,  that  the  New 
England  Farmer,  an  agricultural  paper  published  in  Boston,  and  edited  by 
Thomas  G.  Fessenden,  Esq.,  has  been  conducted  with  spirit,  intelligence  and 

food  judgment  5 that  its  columns  are  replete  with  useful  instruction  in  the 
usiness  of  husbandry,  and  that  its  general  circulation  would  tend  most  bene- 
ficially to  the  knowle%e  and  practical  improvement  of  the  Agricultural  inter- 
ests of  the  country.  It  is,  therefore,  recommended  to  the  notice  and  patronage 
of  the  public,  and  to  the  particular  encouragement  of  the  members  of  this 
Society,  and  of  farmers  generally,  by  their  subscription  for  the  paper,  and  by 
communications  for  publication.  LEVI  LINCOLN,  President. 

Attest,  Wm.  D.  Wheeler,  Rec.  Sec’ry.^^ 

Similar  votes  have  been  passed  by  the  Massachusetts  Agi'icultural  Society, 
the  Essex  Agricultural  Society,  the  Nova  Scotia  Agricultural  Society,  and  bv 
several  others  in  Rhode  Island,  New  Hampshire,  and  New  BrunswicK. 

, The  following  is  from  the  North  American  Review. 

“ The  New  England  Farmer  is  a weekly  paper,  printed  in  a royai 
quarto  form,  and  devoted  to  agriculture.  Nearly  three  volumes  have  been 
published.  In  its  purposes  and  general  character  it  resembles  the  American 
Farmer.  The  New  England  Farmer,  of  course,  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  ag- 
riculture of  the  Eastern  States  5 although  it  contains  communications  of  general 
utility  sent  from  diflereiit  parts  of  the  Union,  and  such  occasional  selections  from 
the  best  agricultural  works,  as  are  important  in  conveying  useful  knowledge  to 
the  farmer.  Well  cbnducted  journals  of  this  sort  must  have  a most  beneficial 
effect  on  the  community.  To  instruct  the  farmer  in  his  art,  and  teach  him 
easier  methods  of  tilling  his  soil,  and  drawing  trom  it  a more  abundant  product, 
is  to  diminish  the  expense  of  cultivation,  and  save  the  same  proportion  of  labour 
to  be  employed  in  an  additional  production. 

“ The  Editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer  is  well  knowm  to  the  public  as  an 
able  writer,  and,  if  we  mistake  not,  this  Journal  will  prove,  that  his  ability  has 
been  employed  with  judgment  and  success  in  the  walks  of  agriculture.  Among 
his  contributors  are  some  of  our  most  distinguished  citizens  and  experienced 
agriculturists  5 and  his  work  may  undoubtedly  be  recommended  to  the  farmers 
of  New  England  in  particular,  as  containing  a mass  of  knowledge  highly  useful 
to  them,  which  could  not  be  obtained  from  any  other  single  source.  Farmers 
in  every  part  of  the  United  States  will  also  find  it  valuable,  as  a repository  of 
facts  on  the  principles  and  practices  of  agriculture  in  general. 


AGENTS. 


Bangor,  G.  W.  Brown. 
Castine,  M.  Chamberlain,  Esq. 
Portsmouth,  J.  W.  Foster. 
Salem,  J.  M.  Ives. 
JVeicburyport,  E.  Stetlnian. 
J^eto  Bedford,  11.  Williams. 
Worcester,  Win.  Lincoln,  Esq. 
Brattlcboro,  J.  Fessenden. 
Providence,  Hugh  Crowm. 


Hartford,  Goodwin  & Sons. 

Albany,  Buel  & Wilson. 

JVfew  York,  G.  Thor  burn  & Son,  67 
Liberty  Street. 

Philadelphia,  D.  & C.  Landretb,  85 
Chesnut  Street, 

Halifax,  (JV.  S.)  P.  J.  Holland. 

St.  John,  ('JV.  B.)  Wm.  O.  Smith, 
Druggist. 


AGRICULTURAL  WAREHOUSE, 

No.  52  NORTH  MARKET  STREET, 

OPPOSITE  merchants’  ROW, 

BOSTON. 

JOSEPH  R.  NEWBLIi,  PROPRIETOR. 

The  Agricultural  Warehouse,  which  has  been  established  in  this  city  about  eight 
years,  has  become  so  extensive,  and  of  so  much  importance  to  the  community,  as  to 
induce  the  proprietor  to  continue  and  extend  it  in  all  its  various  branches,  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  experimental  and  scientific  farmers,  by  the  introduction  of  new  and 
useful  implements  of  husbandry,  and  to  furnish  the  practical  farmer  with  the  best 
tools  for  his  business. 

An  establishment  of  this  kind  not  only  serves  the  above  purpose,  but  is  a deposi- 
tory where  the  inventive  artisan  may  place  his  articles  for  sale. 

The  proprietor  does  not  hesitate  to  say^  that,  among  the  variety  of  articles  on  hand 
at  this  establishment,  many  are  far  superior  in  their  form  and  construction,  and  far 
better  adapted  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended,  than  anyiothers  which 
have  been  in  use  in  this  country. 

Among  the  variety  of  PLOUGHS  on  hand  are  Tice’s,  which  is  the  most  approved 
cast  iron  plough  in  use  j 

Howard’s  wrought  and  cast  iron  do.  ; 

New  York  Self-Sharpening  do. ; 

A new  and  much  approved  Side-hill  plough,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  shift  the 
mould-board  with  great  expedition,  in  such  a manner  as  to  throw  the  furrow  down 
hill  each  way,  and  can  be  used  in  any  common  land  ; 

Common  and  Expanding  Double  Mould-board  ploughs  and  cultivators  ; 

Howard’s  patent  Self-governing  Ploughs.  This  plough  is  so  constructed  as  to  regu- 
late the  depth  and  width  of  each  furrow,  and  govern  itself  without  the  assistance  of  a 
ploughman. 

Pope’s  Improved  Threshing  Machine,  invented  by  the  late  Joseph  Pope,  Esq.,  has 
been  in  successful  operation  in  different  parts  of  the  country  for  several  years  ; and  is 
found,  on  trial,  to  be  the  best  operating  machine  ; to  do  the  work  in  the  most  perfect 
and  efectual  manner  ; and  the  least  liable  to  get  out  of  order  of  any  machine  that  has 
been  in  use  It  will  thoroughly  thresh  twenty  bushels  of  wheat,  rye,  or  barley,  in 
one  hour  ; and  of  oats,  double  the  quantity  ; with  a common  horse  power  which  is 
attached,  and  operates  the  machine  with  perfect  ease  j — with  a Fanning  Machine  for 
cleaning  the  grain. 

Also— Willis’s,  Eastman’s,  Salford’s,  and  the  common  Dutch  Straw  Cutters  j prices 
from  $6  to  $75. 

Jones’s,  Jaquith’s,  and  Harrison’s  Corn  Shellers  j prices  from  $12  to  $25. 

Gault’s,  Philadelphia,  and  common  duaker  Churns  ; from  $1,75  to  $6. 

Thomas’s  Winnowing  Machine  j $16. 

Flagg’s,  Gerrish’s,  and  Bailey’s  Hand  Mills  for  grinding  corn  and  plaster  j price  $6 
to  $100. 

Corn  and  Cob  Crackers  j Cultivators  j Vegetable  Cutters  j Mears’s  Ox  Yoke  ; pat- 
ent cast  steel  Hoes  ; Prong  Hoes  ; Hay  and  Manure  Forks  ; Carrot  Forks  j Shovels 
of  various  sorts  *,  Edging  and  Budding  Knives  ; Pruning  Saws  ; Transplanting  Spades 
and  Shovels  ; Pruning  Shears  ; Chain  Halters  ; Surveyors’  and  Cattle  Chains  ; Treo 
Scrapers  ; Pruning  Knives  and  Chisels  *,  Rules  ; Scythes  ; Iron  Bars  : Hay  Knives  , 
Lead  Water  Pipes  ; Copper  Pumps  j Stone  Milk  Pans  j Stono  Churns,  rots,  &c.,  with 
every  implement  used  on  a farm  or  garden ; comprising  the  largest  assortment  to  be 
found  at  any  warehouse  in  the  United  States. 


JOSEPH  K.  NEWELL. 


